<P>The most recent version of this document can be viewed at <Ahref="http://www.Postgresql.org/docs/faq-english.html">http://www.PostgreSQL.org/docs/faq-english.html</A>.</P>
<P>The most recent version of this document can be viewed at <A
<P>Platform-specific questions are answered at <Ahref="http://www.PostgreSQL.org/users-lounge/docs/faq.html">http://www.PostgreSQL.org/users-lounge/docs/faq.html</A>.</P>
<P>Platform-specific questions are answered at <Ahref=
<Ahref="#1.1">1.1</A>) What is PostgreSQL? How is it pronounced?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.1">1.1</A>) What is PostgreSQL? How is it
pronounced?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.2">1.2</A>) What is the copyright on PostgreSQL?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.2">1.2</A>) What is the copyright on PostgreSQL?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.3">1.3</A>) What Unix platforms does PostgreSQL run on?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.3">1.3</A>) What Unix platforms does PostgreSQL run
on?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.4">1.4</A>) What non-Unix ports are available?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.4">1.4</A>) What non-Unix ports are available?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.5">1.5</A>) Where can I get PostgreSQL?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.5">1.5</A>) Where can I get PostgreSQL?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.6">1.6</A>) Where can I get support?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.6">1.6</A>) Where can I get support?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.7">1.7</A>) What is the latest release?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.7">1.7</A>) What is the latest release?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.8">1.8</A>) What documentation is available?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.8">1.8</A>) What documentation is available?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.9">1.9</A>) How do I find out about known bugs or missing features?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.9">1.9</A>) How do I find out about known bugs or
missing features?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.10">1.10</A>) How can I learn <SMALL>SQL</SMALL>?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.10">1.10</A>) How can I learn <SMALL>SQL</SMALL>?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.11">1.11</A>) Is PostgreSQL Y2K compliant?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.11">1.11</A>) Is PostgreSQL Y2K compliant?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.12">1.12</A>) How do I join the development team?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.12">1.12</A>) How do I join the development team?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.13">1.13</A>) How do I submit a bug report?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.13">1.13</A>) How do I submit a bug report?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.14">1.14</A>) How does PostgreSQL compare to other <SMALL>DBMS</SMALL>s?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.14">1.14</A>) How does PostgreSQL compare to other
<Ahref="#1.15">1.15</A>) How can I financially assist PostgreSQL?<BR>
<SMALL>DBMS</SMALL>s?<BR>
<Ahref="#1.15">1.15</A>) How can I financially assist
PostgreSQL?<BR>
<H2align="center">User Client Questions</H2>
<H2align="center">User Client Questions</H2>
<Ahref="#2.1">2.1</A>) Are there <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> drivers for PostgreSQL?<BR>
<Ahref="#2.1">2.1</A>) Are there <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> drivers for
<Ahref="#2.2">2.2</A>) What tools are available for using PostgreSQL with Web pages?<BR>
PostgreSQL?<BR>
<Ahref="#2.3">2.3</A>) Does PostgreSQL have a graphical user interface? A report generator? An embedded query language interface?<BR>
<Ahref="#2.2">2.2</A>) What tools are available for using
<Ahref="#2.4">2.4</A>) What languages are available to communicate with PostgreSQL?<BR>
PostgreSQL with Web pages?<BR>
<Ahref="#2.3">2.3</A>) Does PostgreSQL have a graphical user
interface? A report generator? An embedded query language
interface?<BR>
<Ahref="#2.4">2.4</A>) What languages are available to
communicate with PostgreSQL?<BR>
<H2align="center">Administrative Questions</H2>
<H2align="center">Administrative Questions</H2>
<Ahref="#3.1">3.1</A>) How do I install PostgreSQL somewhere other than <I>/usr/local/pgsql</I>?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.1">3.1</A>) How do I install PostgreSQL somewhere other
<Ahref="#3.2">3.2</A>) When I start <I>postmaster</I>, I get a <I>Bad System Call</I> or core dumped message. Why?<BR>
than <I>/usr/local/pgsql</I>?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.3">3.3</A>) When I try to start <I>postmaster</I>, I get <I>IpcMemoryCreate</I> errors. Why?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.2">3.2</A>) When I start <I>postmaster</I>, I get a
<Ahref="#3.4">3.4</A>) When I try to start <I>postmaster</I>, I get <I>IpcSemaphoreCreate</I> errors. Why?<BR>
<I>Bad System Call</I> or core dumped message. Why?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.5">3.5</A>) How do I prevent other hosts from accessing my PostgreSQL database?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.3">3.3</A>) When I try to start <I>postmaster</I>, I
<Ahref="#3.6">3.6</A>) Why can't I connect to my database from another machine?<BR>
get <I>IpcMemoryCreate</I> errors. Why?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.7">3.7</A>) How do I tune the database engine for better performance?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.4">3.4</A>) When I try to start <I>postmaster</I>, I
get <I>IpcSemaphoreCreate</I> errors. Why?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.5">3.5</A>) How do I prevent other hosts from
accessing my PostgreSQL database?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.6">3.6</A>) Why can't I connect to my database from
another machine?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.7">3.7</A>) How do I tune the database engine for
better performance?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.8">3.8</A>) What debugging features are available?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.8">3.8</A>) What debugging features are available?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.9">3.9</A>) Why do I get <I>"Sorry, too many clients"</I> when trying to connect?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.9">3.9</A>) Why do I get <I>"Sorry, too many
<Ahref="#3.10">3.10</A>) What are the <I>pg_sorttempNNN.NN</I> files in my database directory?<BR>
clients"</I> when trying to connect?<BR>
<Ahref="#3.10">3.10</A>) What are the <I>pg_sorttempNNN.NN</I>
files in my database directory?<BR>
<H2align="center">Operational Questions</H2>
<H2align="center">Operational Questions</H2>
<Ahref="#4.1">4.1</A>) What is the difference between binary cursors and normal cursors?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.1">4.1</A>) What is the difference between binary
<Ahref="#4.2">4.2</A>) How do I <SMALL>SELECT</SMALL> only the first few rows of a query?<BR>
cursors and normal cursors?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.3">4.3</A>) How do I get a list of tables or other things I can see in <I>psql</I>?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.2">4.2</A>) How do I <SMALL>SELECT</SMALL> only the
<Ahref="#4.4">4.4</A>) How do you remove a column from a table?<BR>
first few rows of a query?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.5">4.5</A>) What is the maximum size for a row, a table, and a database?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.3">4.3</A>) How do I get a list of tables or other
<Ahref="#4.6">4.6</A>) How much database disk space is required to store data from a typical text file?<BR>
things I can see in <I>psql</I>?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.7">4.7</A>) How do I find out what tables or indexes are defined in the database?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.4">4.4</A>) How do you remove a column from a
<Ahref="#4.8">4.8</A>) My queries are slow or don't make use of the indexes. Why?<BR>
table?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.9">4.9</A>) How do I see how the query optimizer is evaluating my query?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.5">4.5</A>) What is the maximum size for a row, a
table, and a database?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.6">4.6</A>) How much database disk space is required
to store data from a typical text file?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.7">4.7</A>) How do I find out what tables or indexes
are defined in the database?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.8">4.8</A>) My queries are slow or don't make use of
the indexes. Why?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.9">4.9</A>) How do I see how the query optimizer is
evaluating my query?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.10">4.10</A>) What is an R-tree index?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.10">4.10</A>) What is an R-tree index?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.11">4.11</A>) What is the Genetic Query Optimizer?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.11">4.11</A>) What is the Genetic Query Optimizer?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.12">4.12</A>) How do I perform regular expression searches and case-insensitive regular expression searches? How do I use an index for case-insensitive searches?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.12">4.12</A>) How do I perform regular expression
<Ahref="#4.13">4.13</A>) In a query, how do I detect if a field is <SMALL>NULL</SMALL>?<BR>
searches and case-insensitive regular expression searches? How do I
<Ahref="#4.14">4.14</A>) What is the difference between the various character types?<BR>
use an index for case-insensitive searches?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.15.1">4.15.1</A>) How do I create a serial/auto-incrementing field?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.13">4.13</A>) In a query, how do I detect if a field
<Ahref="#4.15.2">4.15.2</A>) How do I get the value of a <SMALL>SERIAL</SMALL> insert?<BR>
is <SMALL>NULL</SMALL>?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.15.3">4.15.3</A>) Don't <I>currval()</I> and <I>nextval()</I> lead to a race condition with other users?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.14">4.14</A>) What is the difference between the
<Ahref="#4.16">4.16</A>) What is an <SMALL>OID</SMALL>? What is a <SMALL>TID</SMALL>?<BR>
various character types?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.17">4.17</A>) What is the meaning of some of the terms used in PostgreSQL?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.15.1">4.15.1</A>) How do I create a
<Ahref="#4.18">4.18</A>) Why do I get the error <I>"ERROR: Memory exhausted in AllocSetAlloc()"</I>?<BR>
serial/auto-incrementing field?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.19">4.19</A>) How do I tell what PostgreSQL version I am running?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.15.2">4.15.2</A>) How do I get the value of a
<Ahref="#4.20">4.20</A>) Why does my large-object operations get <I>"invalid large obj descriptor"</I>?<BR>
<SMALL>SERIAL</SMALL> insert?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.21">4.21</A>) How do I create a column that will default to the current time?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.15.3">4.15.3</A>) Don't <I>currval()</I> and
<Ahref="#4.22">4.22</A>) Why are my subqueries using <CODE><SMALL>IN</SMALL></CODE> so slow?<BR>
<I>nextval()</I> lead to a race condition with other users?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.16">4.16</A>) What is an <SMALL>OID</SMALL>? What is a
<SMALL>TID</SMALL>?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.17">4.17</A>) What is the meaning of some of the terms
used in PostgreSQL?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.18">4.18</A>) Why do I get the error <I>"ERROR: Memory
exhausted in AllocSetAlloc()"</I>?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.19">4.19</A>) How do I tell what PostgreSQL version I
am running?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.20">4.20</A>) Why does my large-object operations get
<I>"invalid large obj descriptor"</I>?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.21">4.21</A>) How do I create a column that will
default to the current time?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.22">4.22</A>) Why are my subqueries using
<CODE><SMALL>IN</SMALL></CODE> so slow?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.23">4.23</A>) How do I perform an outer join?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.23">4.23</A>) How do I perform an outer join?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.24">4.24</A>) How do I perform queries using multiple databases?<BR>
<Ahref="#4.24">4.24</A>) How do I perform queries using multiple
databases?<BR>
<H2align="center">Extending PostgreSQL</H2>
<H2align="center">Extending PostgreSQL</H2>
<Ahref="#5.1">5.1</A>) I wrote a user-defined function. When I run it in <I>psql</I>, why does it dump core?<BR>
<Ahref="#5.1">5.1</A>) I wrote a user-defined function. When I run
<Ahref="#5.2">5.2</A>) How can I contribute some nifty new types and functions to PostgreSQL?<BR>
it in <I>psql</I>, why does it dump core?<BR>
<Ahref="#5.3">5.3</A>) How do I write a C function to return a tuple?<BR>
<Ahref="#5.2">5.2</A>) How can I contribute some nifty new types
<Ahref="#5.4">5.4</A>) I have changed a source file. Why does the recompile not see the change?<BR>
and functions to PostgreSQL?<BR>
<Ahref="#5.3">5.3</A>) How do I write a C function to return a
tuple?<BR>
<Ahref="#5.4">5.4</A>) I have changed a source file. Why does the
recompile not see the change?<BR>
<HR>
<HR>
...
@@ -104,83 +156,154 @@
...
@@ -104,83 +156,154 @@
<P>PostgreSQL is pronounced <I>Post-Gres-Q-L</I>.</P>
<P>PostgreSQL is pronounced <I>Post-Gres-Q-L</I>.</P>
<P>PostgreSQL is an enhancement of the POSTGRES database management system, a next-generation <SMALL>DBMS</SMALL> research prototype. While PostgreSQL retains the powerful data model and rich data types of POSTGRES, it replaces the PostQuel query language with an extended subset of <SMALL>SQL</SMALL>. PostgreSQL is free and the complete source is available.</P>
<P>PostgreSQL is an enhancement of the POSTGRES database management
system, a next-generation <SMALL>DBMS</SMALL> research prototype.
<P>PostgreSQL development is performed by a team of Internet developers who all subscribe to the PostgreSQL development mailing list. The current coordinator is Marc G. Fournier (<Ahref="mailto:scrappy@PostgreSQL.org">scrappy@PostgreSQL.org</A>). (See below on how to join). This team is now responsible for all development of PostgreSQL.</P>
While PostgreSQL retains the powerful data model and rich data
types of POSTGRES, it replaces the PostQuel query language with an
<P>The authors of PostgreSQL 1.01 were Andrew Yu and Jolly Chen. Many others have contributed to the porting, testing, debugging, and enhancement of the code. The original Postgres code, from which PostgreSQL is derived, was the effort of many graduate students, undergraduate students, and staff programmers working under the direction of Professor Michael Stonebraker at the University of California, Berkeley.</P>
extended subset of <SMALL>SQL</SMALL>. PostgreSQL is free and the
complete source is available.</P>
<P>The original name of the software at Berkeley was Postgres. When <SMALL>SQL</SMALL> functionality was added in 1995, its name was changed to Postgres95. The name was changed at the end of 1996 to PostgreSQL.</P>
<P>PostgreSQL development is performed by a team of Internet
<H4><Aname="1.2">1.2</A>) What is the copyright on PostgreSQL?</H4>
developers who all subscribe to the PostgreSQL development mailing
list. The current coordinator is Marc G. Fournier (<Ahref=
"mailto:scrappy@PostgreSQL.org">scrappy@PostgreSQL.org</A>). (See
below on how to join). This team is now responsible for all
development of PostgreSQL.</P>
<P>The authors of PostgreSQL 1.01 were Andrew Yu and Jolly Chen.
Many others have contributed to the porting, testing, debugging,
and enhancement of the code. The original Postgres code, from which
PostgreSQL is derived, was the effort of many graduate students,
undergraduate students, and staff programmers working under the
direction of Professor Michael Stonebraker at the University of
California, Berkeley.</P>
<P>The original name of the software at Berkeley was Postgres. When
<SMALL>SQL</SMALL> functionality was added in 1995, its name was
changed to Postgres95. The name was changed at the end of 1996 to
PostgreSQL.</P>
<H4><Aname="1.2">1.2</A>) What is the copyright on
PostgreSQL?</H4>
<P>PostgreSQL is subject to the following COPYRIGHT:</P>
<P>PostgreSQL is subject to the following COPYRIGHT:</P>
<P>PostgreSQL Data Base Management System</P>
<P>PostgreSQL Data Base Management System</P>
<P>Portions copyright (c) 1996-2002, PostgreSQL Global Development Group Portions Copyright (c) 1994-6 Regents of the University of California</P>
<P>Portions copyright (c) 1996-2002, PostgreSQL Global Development
Group Portions Copyright (c) 1994-6 Regents of the University of
<P>Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose, without fee, and without a written agreement is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice and this paragraph and the following two paragraphs appear in all copies.</P>
California</P>
<P>IN NO EVENT SHALL THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BE LIABLE TO ANY PARTY FOR DIRECT, INDIRECT, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, INCLUDING LOST PROFITS, ARISING OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE AND ITS DOCUMENTATION, EVEN IF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.</P>
<P>Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software
and its documentation for any purpose, without fee, and without a
<P>THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIMS ANY WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE SOFTWARE PROVIDED HEREUNDER IS ON AN "AS IS" BASIS, AND THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA HAS NO OBLIGATIONS TO PROVIDE MAINTENANCE, SUPPORT, UPDATES, ENHANCEMENTS, OR MODIFICATIONS.</P>
written agreement is hereby granted, provided that the above
copyright notice and this paragraph and the following two
<H4><Aname="1.3">1.3</A>) What Unix platforms does PostgreSQL run on?</H4>
paragraphs appear in all copies.</P>
<P>In general, a modern Unix-compatible platform should be able to run PostgreSQL. The platforms that had received explicit testing at the time of release are listed in the installation instructions.</P>
<P>IN NO EVENT SHALL THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BE LIABLE TO ANY
PARTY FOR DIRECT, INDIRECT, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
DAMAGES, INCLUDING LOST PROFITS, ARISING OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
SOFTWARE AND ITS DOCUMENTATION, EVEN IF THE UNIVERSITY OF
CALIFORNIA HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.</P>
<P>THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIMS ANY
WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES
OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE
SOFTWARE PROVIDED HEREUNDER IS ON AN "AS IS" BASIS, AND THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA HAS NO OBLIGATIONS TO PROVIDE MAINTENANCE,
SUPPORT, UPDATES, ENHANCEMENTS, OR MODIFICATIONS.</P>
<H4><Aname="1.3">1.3</A>) What Unix platforms does PostgreSQL run
on?</H4>
<P>In general, a modern Unix-compatible platform should be able to
run PostgreSQL. The platforms that had received explicit testing at
the time of release are listed in the installation
instructions.</P>
<H4><Aname="1.4">1.4</A>) What non-Unix ports are available?</H4>
<H4><Aname="1.4">1.4</A>) What non-Unix ports are available?</H4>
<P><STRONG>Client</STRONG></P>
<P><STRONG>Client</STRONG></P>
<P>It is possible to compile the <I>libpq</I> C library, psql, and other interfaces and binaries to run on MS Windows platforms. In this case, the client is running on MS Windows, and communicates via TCP/IP to a server running on one of our supported Unix platforms. A file <I>win31.mak</I> is included in the distribution for making a Win32 <I>libpq</I> library and <I>psql</I>. PostgreSQL also communicates with <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> clients.</P>
<P>It is possible to compile the <I>libpq</I> C library, psql, and
other interfaces and binaries to run on MS Windows platforms. In
this case, the client is running on MS Windows, and communicates
via TCP/IP to a server running on one of our supported Unix
platforms. A file <I>win31.mak</I> is included in the distribution
for making a Win32 <I>libpq</I> library and <I>psql</I>. PostgreSQL
also communicates with <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> clients.</P>
<P><STRONG>Server</STRONG></P>
<P><STRONG>Server</STRONG></P>
<P>The database server can run on Windows NT and Win2k using Cygwin, the Cygnus Unix/NT porting library. See <I>pgsql/doc/FAQ_MSWIN</I> in the distribution or the <Ahref="http://www.postgresql.org/docs/faq-mswin.html">MS Windows FAQ</A> on our web site. We have no plan to do a native port to any Microsoft platform.</P>
<P>The database server can run on Windows NT and Win2k using
Cygwin, the Cygnus Unix/NT porting library. See
<I>pgsql/doc/FAQ_MSWIN</I> in the distribution or the <Ahref=
"http://www.postgresql.org/docs/faq-mswin.html">MS Windows FAQ</A>
on our web site. We have no plan to do a native port to any
Microsoft platform.</P>
<H4><Aname="1.5">1.5</A>) Where can I get PostgreSQL?</H4>
<H4><Aname="1.5">1.5</A>) Where can I get PostgreSQL?</H4>
<P>The primary anonymous ftp site for PostgreSQL is <Ahref="ftp://ftp.PostgreSQL.org/pub">ftp://ftp.PostgreSQL.org/pub</A>. For mirror sites, see our main web site.</P>
<P>The primary anonymous ftp site for PostgreSQL is <Ahref=
<H4><Aname="1.6">1.6</A>) Where can I get support?</H4>
<H4><Aname="1.6">1.6</A>) Where can I get support?</H4>
<P>The main mailing list is: <Ahref="mailto:pgsql-general@PostgreSQL.org">pgsql-general@PostgreSQL.org</A>. It is available for discussion of matters pertaining to PostgreSQL. To subscribe, send mail with the following lines in the body (not the subject line):</P>
<P>There is also a digest list available. To subscribe to this list, send email to: <Ahref="mailto:pgsql-general-digest-request@PostgreSQL.org">pgsql-general-digest-request@PostgreSQL.org</A> with a body of:</P>
<P>There is also a digest list available. To subscribe to this
Digests are sent out to members of this list whenever the main list has received around 30k of messages.
Digests are sent out to members of this list whenever the main list
has received around 30k of messages.
<P>The bugs mailing list is available. To subscribe to this list, send email to <Ahref="mailto:pgsql-bugs-request@PostgreSQL.org">pgsql-bugs-request@PostgreSQL.org</A> with a body of:</P>
<P>The bugs mailing list is available. To subscribe to this list,
There is also a developers discussion mailing list available. To subscribe to this list, send email to <Ahref="mailto:pgsql-hackers-request@PostgreSQL.org">pgsql-hackers-request@PostgreSQL.org</A> with a body of:
There is also a developers discussion mailing list available. To
<P>There is also an IRC channel on EFNet, channel <I>#PostgreSQL</I>. I use the Unix command <CODE>irc -c '#PostgreSQL' "$USER" irc.phoenix.net.</CODE></P>
<P>There is also an IRC channel on EFNet, channel
<I>#PostgreSQL</I>. I use the Unix command <CODE>irc -c
'#PostgreSQL' "$USER" irc.phoenix.net.</CODE></P>
<P>A list of commercial support companies is available at <Ahref="http://www.postgresql.org/users-lounge/commercial-support.html">http://www.postgresql.org/users-lounge/commercial-support.html</A>.</P>
<P>A list of commercial support companies is available at <Ahref=
<H4><Aname="1.7">1.7</A>) What is the latest release?</H4>
<H4><Aname="1.7">1.7</A>) What is the latest release?</H4>
...
@@ -190,124 +313,238 @@
...
@@ -190,124 +313,238 @@
<H4><Aname="1.8">1.8</A>) What documentation is available?</H4>
<H4><Aname="1.8">1.8</A>) What documentation is available?</H4>
<P>Several manuals, manual pages, and some small test examples are included in the distribution. See the <I>/doc</I> directory. You can also browse the manual online at <Ahref="http://www.PostgreSQL.org/users-lounge/docs/">http://www.PostgreSQL.org/users-lounge/docs/</A>.</P>
<P>Several manuals, manual pages, and some small test examples are
included in the distribution. See the <I>/doc</I> directory. You
<P><I>psql</I> has some nice \d commands to show information about types, operators, functions, aggregates, etc.</P>
<P><I>psql</I> has some nice \d commands to show information about
types, operators, functions, aggregates, etc.</P>
<P>Our web site contains even more documentation.</P>
<P>Our web site contains even more documentation.</P>
<H4><Aname="1.9">1.9</A>) How do I find out about known bugs or missing features?</H4>
<H4><Aname="1.9">1.9</A>) How do I find out about known bugs or
missing features?</H4>
<P>PostgreSQL supports an extended subset of <SMALL>SQL</SMALL>-92. See our <Ahref="http://developer.PostgreSQL.org/todo.php">TODO</A> list for known bugs, missing features, and future plans.</P>
<P>PostgreSQL supports an extended subset of <SMALL>SQL</SMALL>-92.
See our <Ahref="http://developer.PostgreSQL.org/todo.php">TODO</A>
list for known bugs, missing features, and future plans.</P>
<H4><Aname="1.10">1.10</A>) How can I learn <SMALL>SQL</SMALL>?</H4>
<H4><Aname="1.10">1.10</A>) How can I learn
<SMALL>SQL</SMALL>?</H4>
<P>The PostgreSQL book at <Ahref="http://www.PostgreSQL.org/docs/awbook.html">http://www.PostgreSQL.org/docs/awbook.html</A> teaches <SMALL>SQL</SMALL>. There is a nice tutorial at <Ahref="http://www.intermedia.net/support/sql/sqltut.shtm">http://www.intermedia.net/support/sql/sqltut.shtm</A> and at <Ahref="http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/graeme_birchall/HTM_COOK.HTM">http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/graeme_birchall/HTM_COOK.HTM.</A></P>
<P>Another one is "Teach Yourself SQL in 21 Days, Second Edition" at <Ahref="http://members.tripod.com/er4ebus/sql/index.htm">http://members.tripod.com/er4ebus/sql/index.htm</A></P>
<P>Another one is "Teach Yourself SQL in 21 Days, Second Edition"
<P>Many of our users like <I>The Practical SQL Handbook</I>, Bowman, Judith S., et al., Addison-Wesley. Others like <I>The Complete Reference SQL</I>, Groff et al., McGraw-Hill.</P>
<P>Many of our users like <I>The Practical SQL Handbook</I>,
Bowman, Judith S., et al., Addison-Wesley. Others like <I>The
Complete Reference SQL</I>, Groff et al., McGraw-Hill.</P>
<H4><Aname="1.11">1.11</A>) Is PostgreSQL Y2K compliant?</H4>
<H4><Aname="1.11">1.11</A>) Is PostgreSQL Y2K compliant?</H4>
<P>Yes, we easily handle dates past the year 2000 AD, and before 2000 BC.</P>
<P>Yes, we easily handle dates past the year 2000 AD, and before
2000 BC.</P>
<H4><Aname="1.12">1.12</A>) How do I join the development team?</H4>
<H4><Aname="1.12">1.12</A>) How do I join the development
team?</H4>
<P>First, download the latest source and read the PostgreSQL Developers documentation on our web site, or in the distribution. Second, subscribe to the <I>pgsql-hackers</I> and <I>pgsql-patches</I> mailing lists. Third, submit high quality patches to pgsql-patches.</P>
<P>First, download the latest source and read the PostgreSQL
Developers documentation on our web site, or in the distribution.
Second, subscribe to the <I>pgsql-hackers</I> and
<I>pgsql-patches</I> mailing lists. Third, submit high quality
patches to pgsql-patches.</P>
<P>There are about a dozen people who have commit privileges to the PostgreSQL <SMALL>CVS</SMALL> archive. They each have submitted so many high-quality patches that it was impossible for the existing committers to keep up, and we had confidence that patches they committed were of high quality.</P>
<P>There are about a dozen people who have commit privileges to the
PostgreSQL <SMALL>CVS</SMALL> archive. They each have submitted so
many high-quality patches that it was impossible for the existing
committers to keep up, and we had confidence that patches they
committed were of high quality.</P>
<H4><Aname="1.13">1.13</A>) How do I submit a bug report?</H4>
<H4><Aname="1.13">1.13</A>) How do I submit a bug report?</H4>
<P>Please visit the <Ahref="http://www.postgresql.org/bugs/bugs.php">PostgreSQL BugTool</A> page, which gives guidelines and directions on how to submit a bug.</P>
page, which gives guidelines and directions on how to submit a
bug.</P>
<P>Also check out our ftp site <Ahref="ftp://ftp.PostgreSQL.org/pub">ftp://ftp.PostgreSQL.org/pub</A> to see if there is a more recent PostgreSQL version or patches.</P>
<P>Also check out our ftp site <Ahref=
"ftp://ftp.PostgreSQL.org/pub">ftp://ftp.PostgreSQL.org/pub</A> to
see if there is a more recent PostgreSQL version or patches.</P>
<H4><Aname="1.14">1.14</A>) How does PostgreSQL compare to other <SMALL>DBMS</SMALL>s?</H4>
<H4><Aname="1.14">1.14</A>) How does PostgreSQL compare to other
<SMALL>DBMS</SMALL>s?</H4>
<P>There are several ways of measuring software: features, performance, reliability, support, and price.</P>
<P>There are several ways of measuring software: features,
performance, reliability, support, and price.</P>
<DL>
<DL>
<DT><B>Features</B></DT>
<DT><B>Features</B></DT>
<DD>PostgreSQL has most features present in large commercial <SMALL>DBMS</SMALL>s, like transactions, subselects, triggers, views, foreign key referential integrity, and sophisticated locking. We have some features they do not have, like user-defined types, inheritance, rules, and multi-version concurrency control to reduce lock contention.<BR>
<DD>PostgreSQL has most features present in large commercial
<SMALL>DBMS</SMALL>s, like transactions, subselects, triggers,
views, foreign key referential integrity, and sophisticated
locking. We have some features they do not have, like
user-defined types, inheritance, rules, and multi-version
concurrency control to reduce lock contention.<BR>
<BR>
<BR>
</DD>
</DD>
<DT><B>Performance</B></DT>
<DT><B>Performance</B></DT>
<DD>PostgreSQL runs in two modes. Normal <I>fsync</I> mode flushes every completed transaction to disk, guaranteeing that if the OS crashes or loses power in the next few seconds, all your data is safely stored on disk. In this mode, we are slower than most commercial databases, partly because few of them do such conservative flushing to disk in their default modes. In <I>no-fsync</I> mode, we are usually faster than commercial databases, though in this mode, an OS crash could cause data corruption. We are working to provide an intermediate mode that suffers less performance overhead than full fsync mode, and will allow data integrity within 30 seconds of an OS crash.<BR>
<DD>PostgreSQL runs in two modes. Normal <I>fsync</I> mode
flushes every completed transaction to disk, guaranteeing that if
the OS crashes or loses power in the next few seconds, all your
data is safely stored on disk. In this mode, we are slower than
most commercial databases, partly because few of them do such
conservative flushing to disk in their default modes. In
<I>no-fsync</I> mode, we are usually faster than commercial
databases, though in this mode, an OS crash could cause data
corruption. We are working to provide an intermediate mode that
suffers less performance overhead than full fsync mode, and will
allow data integrity within 30 seconds of an OS crash.<BR>
<BR>
<BR>
In comparison to MySQL or leaner database systems, we are slower on inserts/updates because we have transaction overhead. Of course, MySQL does not have any of the features mentioned in the <I>Features</I> section above. We are built for flexibility and features, though we continue to improve performance through profiling and source code analysis. There is an interesting Web page comparing PostgreSQL to MySQL at <Ahref="http://openacs.org/why-not-mysql.html">http://openacs.org/why-not-mysql.html</A><BR>
In comparison to MySQL or leaner database systems, we are slower
on inserts/updates because we have transaction overhead. Of
course, MySQL does not have any of the features mentioned in the
<I>Features</I> section above. We are built for flexibility and
features, though we continue to improve performance through
profiling and source code analysis. There is an interesting Web
We handle each user connection by creating a Unix process. Backend processes share data buffers and locking information. With multiple CPUs, multiple backends can easily run on different CPUs.<BR>
We handle each user connection by creating a Unix process.
Backend processes share data buffers and locking information.
With multiple CPUs, multiple backends can easily run on different
CPUs.<BR>
<BR>
<BR>
</DD>
</DD>
<DT><B>Reliability</B></DT>
<DT><B>Reliability</B></DT>
<DD>We realize that a <SMALL>DBMS</SMALL> must be reliable, or it is worthless. We strive to release well-tested, stable code that has a minimum of bugs. Each release has at least one month of beta testing, and our release history shows that we can provide stable, solid releases that are ready for production use. We believe we compare favorably to other database software in this area.<BR>
<DD>We realize that a <SMALL>DBMS</SMALL> must be reliable, or it
is worthless. We strive to release well-tested, stable code that
has a minimum of bugs. Each release has at least one month of
beta testing, and our release history shows that we can provide
stable, solid releases that are ready for production use. We
believe we compare favorably to other database software in this
area.<BR>
<BR>
<BR>
</DD>
</DD>
<DT><B>Support</B></DT>
<DT><B>Support</B></DT>
<DD>Our mailing list provides a large group of developers and users to help resolve any problems encountered. While we can not guarantee a fix, commercial <SMALL>DBMS</SMALL>s do not always supply a fix either. Direct access to developers, the user community, manuals, and the source code often make PostgreSQL support superior to other <SMALL>DBMS</SMALL>s. There is commercial per-incident support available for those who need it. (See <Ahref="#1.6">support FAQ item</A>.)<BR>
<DD>Our mailing list provides a large group of developers and
users to help resolve any problems encountered. While we can not
guarantee a fix, commercial <SMALL>DBMS</SMALL>s do not always
supply a fix either. Direct access to developers, the user
community, manuals, and the source code often make PostgreSQL
support superior to other <SMALL>DBMS</SMALL>s. There is
commercial per-incident support available for those who need it.
(See <Ahref="#1.6">support FAQ item</A>.)<BR>
<BR>
<BR>
</DD>
</DD>
<DT><B>Price</B></DT>
<DT><B>Price</B></DT>
<DD>We are free for all use, both commercial and non-commercial. You can add our code to your product with no limitations, except those outlined in our BSD-style license stated above.<BR>
<DD>We are free for all use, both commercial and non-commercial.
You can add our code to your product with no limitations, except
those outlined in our BSD-style license stated above.<BR>
<BR>
<BR>
</DD>
</DD>
</DL>
</DL>
<H4><Aname="1.15">1.15</A>) How can I financially assist PostgreSQL?</H4>
<H4><Aname="1.15">1.15</A>) How can I financially assist
PostgreSQL?</H4>
<P>PostgreSQL has had a first-class infrastructure since we started six years ago. This is all thanks to Marc Fournier, who has created and managed this infrastructure over the years.</P>
<P>PostgreSQL has had a first-class infrastructure since we started
six years ago. This is all thanks to Marc Fournier, who has created
and managed this infrastructure over the years.</P>
<P>Quality infrastructure is very important to an open-source project. It prevents disruptions that can greatly delay forward movement of the project.</P>
<P>Quality infrastructure is very important to an open-source
project. It prevents disruptions that can greatly delay forward
movement of the project.</P>
<P>Of course, this infrastructure is not cheap. There are a variety of monthly and one-time expenses that are required to keep it going. If you or your company has money it can donate to help fund this effort, please go to <Ahref="http://www.pgsql.com/pg_goodies">http://www.pgsql.com/pg_goodies</A> and make a donation.</P>
<P>Of course, this infrastructure is not cheap. There are a variety
of monthly and one-time expenses that are required to keep it
going. If you or your company has money it can donate to help fund
<P>Although the web page mentions PostgreSQL, Inc, the "contributions" item is solely to support the PostgreSQL project and does not fund any specific company. If you prefer, you can also send a check to the contact address.</P>
<P>Although the web page mentions PostgreSQL, Inc, the
"contributions" item is solely to support the PostgreSQL project
and does not fund any specific company. If you prefer, you can also
send a check to the contact address.</P>
<HR>
<HR>
<H2align="center">User Client Questions</H2>
<H2align="center">User Client Questions</H2>
<H4><Aname="2.1">2.1</A>) Are there <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> drivers for PostgreSQL?</H4>
<H4><Aname="2.1">2.1</A>) Are there <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> drivers
for PostgreSQL?</H4>
<P>There are two <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> drivers available, PsqlODBC and OpenLink <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL>.</P>
<P>There are two <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> drivers available, PsqlODBC
and OpenLink <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL>.</P>
<P>PsqlODBC is included in the distribution. More information about it can be gotten from <Ahref="ftp://ftp.PostgreSQL.org/pub/odbc/">ftp://ftp.PostgreSQL.org/pub/odbc/</A>.</P>
<P>PsqlODBC is included in the distribution. More information about
<P>OpenLink <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> can be gotten from <Ahref="http://www.openlinksw.com/">http://www.openlinksw.com</A>. It works with their standard <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> client software so you'll have PostgreSQL <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> available on every client platform they support (Win, Mac, Unix, VMS).</P>
<P>OpenLink <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> can be gotten from <Ahref=
"http://www.openlinksw.com/">http://www.openlinksw.com</A>. It
works with their standard <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> client software so
you'll have PostgreSQL <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> available on every
client platform they support (Win, Mac, Unix, VMS).</P>
<P>They will probably be selling this product to people who need commercial-quality support, but a freeware version will always be available. Please send questions to <Ahref="mailto:postgres95@openlink.co.uk">postgres95@openlink.co.uk</A>.</P>
<P>They will probably be selling this product to people who need
commercial-quality support, but a freeware version will always be
<P>For complex cases, many use the Perl interface and CGI.pm.</P>
<P>For complex cases, many use the Perl interface and CGI.pm.</P>
<H4><Aname="2.3">2.3</A>) Does PostgreSQL have a graphical user interface? A report generator? An embedded query language interface?</H4>
<H4><Aname="2.3">2.3</A>) Does PostgreSQL have a graphical user
interface? A report generator? An embedded query language
interface?</H4>
<P>We have a nice graphical user interface called <I>pgaccess</I>, which is shipped as part of the distribution. <I>pgaccess</I> also has a report generator. The Web page is <Ahref="http://www.flex.ro/pgaccess">http://www.flex.ro/pgaccess</A></P>
<P>We have a nice graphical user interface called <I>pgaccess</I>,
which is shipped as part of the distribution. <I>pgaccess</I> also
<P>We also include <I>ecpg</I>, which is an embedded SQL query language interface for C.</P>
<P>We also include <I>ecpg</I>, which is an embedded SQL query
language interface for C.</P>
<H4><Aname="2.4">2.4</A>) What languages are available to communicate with PostgreSQL?</H4>
<H4><Aname="2.4">2.4</A>) What languages are available to
communicate with PostgreSQL?</H4>
<P>We have:</P>
<P>We have:</P>
...
@@ -330,112 +567,253 @@
...
@@ -330,112 +567,253 @@
<LI>C Easy API (libpgeasy)</LI>
<LI>C Easy API (libpgeasy)</LI>
<LI>Embedded <SMALL>HTML</SMALL> (<Ahref="http://www.php.net">PHP from http://www.php.net</A>)</LI>
<LI>Embedded <SMALL>HTML</SMALL> (<Ahref=
"http://www.php.net">PHP from http://www.php.net</A>)</LI>
</UL>
</UL>
<HR>
<HR>
<H2align="center">Administrative Questions</H2>
<H2align="center">Administrative Questions</H2>
<H4><Aname="3.1">3.1</A>) How do I install PostgreSQL somewhere other than <I>/usr/local/pgsql</I>?</H4>
<H4><Aname="3.1">3.1</A>) How do I install PostgreSQL somewhere
other than <I>/usr/local/pgsql</I>?</H4>
<P>Specify the <I>--prefix</I> option when running <I>configure</I>.</P>
<P>Specify the <I>--prefix</I> option when running
<H4><Aname="3.2">3.2</A>) When I start <I>postmaster</I>, I get a <I>Bad System Call</I> or core dumped message. Why?</H4>
<I>configure</I>.</P>
<P>It could be a variety of problems, but first check to see that you have System V extensions installed in your kernel. PostgreSQL requires kernel support for shared memory and semaphores.</P>
<H4><Aname="3.2">3.2</A>) When I start <I>postmaster</I>, I get a
<I>Bad System Call</I> or core dumped message. Why?</H4>
<H4><Aname="3.3">3.3</A>) When I try to start <I>postmaster</I>, I get <I>IpcMemoryCreate</I> errors. Why?</H4>
<P>It could be a variety of problems, but first check to see that
<P>You either do not have shared memory configured properly in your kernel or you need to enlarge the shared memory available in the kernel. The exact amount you need depends on your architecture and how many buffers and backend processes you configure for <I>postmaster</I>. For most systems, with default numbers of buffers and processes, you need a minimum of ~1 MB. See the <Ahref="http://www.postgresql.org/idocs/index.php?kernel-resources.html">PostgreSQL Administrator's Guide</A> for more detailed information about shared memory and semaphores.</P>
you have System V extensions installed in your kernel. PostgreSQL
requires kernel support for shared memory and semaphores.</P>
<H4><Aname="3.4">3.4</A>) When I try to start <I>postmaster</I>, I get <I>IpcSemaphoreCreate</I> errors. Why?</H4>
<H4><Aname="3.3">3.3</A>) When I try to start <I>postmaster</I>, I
<P>If the error message is <I>IpcSemaphoreCreate: semget failed (No space left on device)</I> then your kernel is not configured with enough semaphores. Postgres needs one semaphore per potential backend process. A temporary solution is to start <I>postmaster</I> with a smaller limit on the number of backend processes. Use <I>-N</I> with a parameter less than the default of 32. A more permanent solution is to increase your kernel's <SMALL>SEMMNS</SMALL> and <SMALL>SEMMNI</SMALL> parameters.</P>
get <I>IpcMemoryCreate</I> errors. Why?</H4>
<P>Inoperative semaphores can also cause crashes during heavy database access.</P>
<P>You either do not have shared memory configured properly in your
kernel or you need to enlarge the shared memory available in the
<P>If the error message is something else, you might not have semaphore support configured in your kernel at all. See the PostgreSQL Administrator's Guide for more detailed information about shared memory and semaphores.</P>
kernel. The exact amount you need depends on your architecture and
how many buffers and backend processes you configure for
<H4><Aname="3.5">3.5</A>) How do I prevent other hosts from accessing my PostgreSQL database?</H4>
<I>postmaster</I>. For most systems, with default numbers of
buffers and processes, you need a minimum of ~1 MB. See the <A
<P>By default, PostgreSQL only allows connections from the local machine using Unix domain sockets. Other machines will not be able to connect unless you add the <I>-i</I> flag to <I>postmaster</I>, <B>and</B> enable host-based authentication by modifying the file <I>$PGDATA/pg_hba.conf</I> accordingly. This will allow TCP/IP connections.</P>
<H4><Aname="3.6">3.6</A>) Why can't I connect to my database from another machine?</H4>
Administrator's Guide</A> for more detailed information about
shared memory and semaphores.</P>
<P>The default configuration allows only Unix domain socket connections from the local machine. To enable TCP/IP connections, make sure <I>postmaster</I> has been started with the <I>-i</I> option, and add an appropriate host entry to the file <I>pgsql/data/pg_hba.conf</I>.</P>
<H4><Aname="3.4">3.4</A>) When I try to start <I>postmaster</I>, I
<H4><Aname="3.7">3.7</A>) How do I tune the database engine for better performance?</H4>
get <I>IpcSemaphoreCreate</I> errors. Why?</H4>
<P>Certainly, indexes can speed up queries. The <SMALL>EXPLAIN</SMALL> command allows you to see how PostgreSQL is interpreting your query, and which indexes are being used.</P>
<P>If the error message is <I>IpcSemaphoreCreate: semget failed (No
space left on device)</I> then your kernel is not configured with
<P>If you are doing many <SMALL>INSERTs</SMALL>, consider doing them in a large batch using the <SMALL>COPY</SMALL> command. This is much faster than individual <SMALL>INSERTS.</SMALL> Second, statements not in a <SMALL>BEGIN WORK/COMMIT</SMALL> transaction block are considered to be in their own transaction. Consider performing several statements in a single transaction block. This reduces the transaction overhead. Also, consider dropping and recreating indexes when making large data changes.</P>
enough semaphores. Postgres needs one semaphore per potential
backend process. A temporary solution is to start <I>postmaster</I>
<P>There are several tuning options. You can disable <I>fsync()</I> by starting <I>postmaster</I> with a <I>-o -F</I> option. This will prevent <I>fsync()</I>s from flushing to disk after every transaction.</P>
with a smaller limit on the number of backend processes. Use
<I>-N</I> with a parameter less than the default of 32. A more
<P>You can also use the <I>postmaster</I><I>-B</I> option to increase the number of shared memory buffers used by the backend processes. If you make this parameter too high, the <I>postmaster</I> may not start because you have exceeded your kernel's limit on shared memory space. Each buffer is 8K and the default is 64 buffers.</P>
permanent solution is to increase your kernel's
<SMALL>SEMMNS</SMALL> and <SMALL>SEMMNI</SMALL> parameters.</P>
<P>You can also use the backend <I>-S</I> option to increase the maximum amount of memory used by the backend process for temporary sorts. The <I>-S</I> value is measured in kilobytes, and the default is 512 (i.e. 512K).</P>
<P>Inoperative semaphores can also cause crashes during heavy
<P>You can also use the <SMALL>CLUSTER</SMALL> command to group data in tables to match an index. See the <SMALL>CLUSTER</SMALL> manual page for more details.</P>
database access.</P>
<H4><Aname="3.8">3.8</A>) What debugging features are available?</H4>
<P>If the error message is something else, you might not have
semaphore support configured in your kernel at all. See the
<P>PostgreSQL has several features that report status information that can be valuable for debugging purposes.</P>
PostgreSQL Administrator's Guide for more detailed information
about shared memory and semaphores.</P>
<P>First, by running <I>configure</I> with the --enable-cassert option, many <I>assert()</I>s monitor the progress of the backend and halt the program when something unexpected occurs.</P>
<H4><Aname="3.5">3.5</A>) How do I prevent other hosts from
<P>Both <I>postmaster</I> and <I>postgres</I> have several debug options available. First, whenever you start <I>postmaster</I>, make sure you send the standard output and error to a log file, like:</P>
accessing my PostgreSQL database?</H4>
<P>By default, PostgreSQL only allows connections from the local
machine using Unix domain sockets. Other machines will not be able
to connect unless you add the <I>-i</I> flag to <I>postmaster</I>,
<B>and</B> enable host-based authentication by modifying the file
<I>$PGDATA/pg_hba.conf</I> accordingly. This will allow TCP/IP
connections.</P>
<H4><Aname="3.6">3.6</A>) Why can't I connect to my database from
another machine?</H4>
<P>The default configuration allows only Unix domain socket
connections from the local machine. To enable TCP/IP connections,
make sure <I>postmaster</I> has been started with the <I>-i</I>
option, and add an appropriate host entry to the file
<I>pgsql/data/pg_hba.conf</I>.</P>
<H4><Aname="3.7">3.7</A>) How do I tune the database engine for
better performance?</H4>
<P>Certainly, indexes can speed up queries. The
<SMALL>EXPLAIN</SMALL> command allows you to see how PostgreSQL is
interpreting your query, and which indexes are being used.</P>
<P>If you are doing many <SMALL>INSERTs</SMALL>, consider doing
them in a large batch using the <SMALL>COPY</SMALL> command. This
is much faster than individual <SMALL>INSERTS.</SMALL> Second,
statements not in a <SMALL>BEGIN WORK/COMMIT</SMALL> transaction
block are considered to be in their own transaction. Consider
performing several statements in a single transaction block. This
reduces the transaction overhead. Also, consider dropping and
recreating indexes when making large data changes.</P>
<P>There are several tuning options. You can disable <I>fsync()</I>
by starting <I>postmaster</I> with a <I>-o -F</I> option. This will
prevent <I>fsync()</I>s from flushing to disk after every
transaction.</P>
<P>You can also use the <I>postmaster</I><I>-B</I> option to
increase the number of shared memory buffers used by the backend
processes. If you make this parameter too high, the
<I>postmaster</I> may not start because you have exceeded your
kernel's limit on shared memory space. Each buffer is 8K and the
default is 64 buffers.</P>
<P>You can also use the backend <I>-S</I> option to increase the
maximum amount of memory used by the backend process for temporary
sorts. The <I>-S</I> value is measured in kilobytes, and the
default is 512 (i.e. 512K).</P>
<P>You can also use the <SMALL>CLUSTER</SMALL> command to group
data in tables to match an index. See the <SMALL>CLUSTER</SMALL>
manual page for more details.</P>
<H4><Aname="3.8">3.8</A>) What debugging features are
available?</H4>
<P>PostgreSQL has several features that report status information
that can be valuable for debugging purposes.</P>
<P>First, by running <I>configure</I> with the --enable-cassert
option, many <I>assert()</I>s monitor the progress of the backend
and halt the program when something unexpected occurs.</P>
<P>Both <I>postmaster</I> and <I>postgres</I> have several debug
options available. First, whenever you start <I>postmaster</I>,
make sure you send the standard output and error to a log file,
like:</P>
<PRE>
<PRE>
cd /usr/local/pgsql
cd /usr/local/pgsql
./bin/postmaster >server.log 2>&1 &
./bin/postmaster >server.log 2>&1 &
</PRE>
</PRE>
<P>This will put a server.log file in the top-level PostgreSQL directory. This file contains useful information about problems or errors encountered by the server. <I>Postmaster</I> has a <I>-d</I> option that allows even more detailed information to be reported. The <I>-d</I> option takes a number that specifies the debug level. Be warned that high debug level values generate large log files.</P>
<P>This will put a server.log file in the top-level PostgreSQL
directory. This file contains useful information about problems or
<P>If <I>postmaster</I> is not running, you can actually run the <I>postgres</I> backend from the command line, and type your <SMALL>SQL</SMALL> statement directly. This is recommended <B>only</B> for debugging purposes. Note that a newline terminates the query, not a semicolon. If you have compiled with debugging symbols, you can use a debugger to see what is happening. Because the backend was not started from <I>postmaster</I>, it is not running in an identical environment and locking/backend interaction problems may not be duplicated.</P>
errors encountered by the server. <I>Postmaster</I> has a <I>-d</I>
option that allows even more detailed information to be reported.
<P>If <I>postmaster</I> is running, start <I>psql</I> in one window, then find the <SMALL>PID</SMALL> of the <I>postgres</I> process used by <I>psql</I>. Use a debugger to attach to the <I>postgres</I><SMALL>PID.</SMALL> You can set breakpoints in the debugger and issue queries from <I>psql</I>. If you are debugging <I>postgres</I> startup, you can set PGOPTIONS="-W n", then start <I>psql</I>. This will cause startup to delay for <I>n</I> seconds so you can attach to the process with the debugger, set any breakpoints, and continue through the startup sequence.</P>
The <I>-d</I> option takes a number that specifies the debug level.
Be warned that high debug level values generate large log
<P>The <I>postgres</I> program has <I>-s, -A</I>, and <I>-t</I> options that can be very useful for debugging and performance measurements.</P>
files.</P>
<P>You can also compile with profiling to see what functions are taking execution time. The backend profile files will be deposited in the <I>pgsql/data/base/dbname</I> directory. The client profile file will be put in the client's current directory.</P>
<P>If <I>postmaster</I> is not running, you can actually run the
<I>postgres</I> backend from the command line, and type your
<H4><Aname="3.9">3.9</A>) Why do I get <I>"Sorry, too many clients"</I> when trying to connect?</H4>
<SMALL>SQL</SMALL> statement directly. This is recommended
<B>only</B> for debugging purposes. Note that a newline terminates
<P>You need to increase <I>postmaster</I>'s limit on how many concurrent backend processes it can start.</P>
the query, not a semicolon. If you have compiled with debugging
symbols, you can use a debugger to see what is happening. Because
<P>The default limit is 32 processes. You can increase it by restarting <I>postmaster</I> with a suitable <I>-N</I> value or modifying <I>postgresql.conf</I>.</P>
the backend was not started from <I>postmaster</I>, it is not
running in an identical environment and locking/backend interaction
<P>Note that if you make <I>-N</I> larger than 32, you must also increase <I>-B</I> beyond its default of 64; <I>-B</I> must be at least twice <I>-N</I>, and probably should be more than that for best performance. For large numbers of backend processes, you are also likely to find that you need to increase various Unix kernel configuration parameters. Things to check include the maximum size of shared memory blocks, <SMALL>SHMMAX;</SMALL> the maximum number of semaphores, <SMALL>SEMMNS</SMALL> and <SMALL>SEMMNI;</SMALL> the maximum number of processes, <SMALL>NPROC;</SMALL> the maximum number of processes per user, <SMALL>MAXUPRC;</SMALL> and the maximum number of open files, <SMALL>NFILE</SMALL> and <SMALL>NINODE.</SMALL> The reason that PostgreSQL has a limit on the number of allowed backend processes is so your system won't run out of resources.</P>
problems may not be duplicated.</P>
<P>In PostgreSQL versions prior to 6.5, the maximum number of backends was 64, and changing it required a rebuild after altering the MaxBackendId constant in <I>include/storage/sinvaladt.h</I>.</P>
<P>If <I>postmaster</I> is running, start <I>psql</I> in one
window, then find the <SMALL>PID</SMALL> of the <I>postgres</I>
<H4><Aname="3.10">3.10</A>) What are the <I>pg_sorttempNNN.NN</I> files in my database directory?</H4>
process used by <I>psql</I>. Use a debugger to attach to the
<I>postgres</I><SMALL>PID.</SMALL> You can set breakpoints in the
<P>They are temporary files generated by the query executor. For example, if a sort needs to be done to satisfy an <SMALL>ORDER BY,</SMALL> and the sort requires more space than the backend's <I>-S</I> parameter allows, then temporary files are created to hold the extra data.</P>
debugger and issue queries from <I>psql</I>. If you are debugging
<I>postgres</I> startup, you can set PGOPTIONS="-W n", then start
<P>The temporary files should be deleted automatically, but might not if a backend crashes during a sort. If you have no backends running at the time, it is safe to delete the pg_tempNNN.NN files.</P>
<I>psql</I>. This will cause startup to delay for <I>n</I> seconds
so you can attach to the process with the debugger, set any
breakpoints, and continue through the startup sequence.</P>
<P>The <I>postgres</I> program has <I>-s, -A</I>, and <I>-t</I>
options that can be very useful for debugging and performance
measurements.</P>
<P>You can also compile with profiling to see what functions are
taking execution time. The backend profile files will be deposited
in the <I>pgsql/data/base/dbname</I> directory. The client profile
file will be put in the client's current directory.</P>
<H4><Aname="3.9">3.9</A>) Why do I get <I>"Sorry, too many
clients"</I> when trying to connect?</H4>
<P>You need to increase <I>postmaster</I>'s limit on how many
concurrent backend processes it can start.</P>
<P>The default limit is 32 processes. You can increase it by
restarting <I>postmaster</I> with a suitable <I>-N</I> value or
modifying <I>postgresql.conf</I>.</P>
<P>Note that if you make <I>-N</I> larger than 32, you must also
increase <I>-B</I> beyond its default of 64; <I>-B</I> must be at
least twice <I>-N</I>, and probably should be more than that for
best performance. For large numbers of backend processes, you are
also likely to find that you need to increase various Unix kernel
configuration parameters. Things to check include the maximum size
of shared memory blocks, <SMALL>SHMMAX;</SMALL> the maximum number
of semaphores, <SMALL>SEMMNS</SMALL> and <SMALL>SEMMNI;</SMALL> the
maximum number of processes, <SMALL>NPROC;</SMALL> the maximum
number of processes per user, <SMALL>MAXUPRC;</SMALL> and the
maximum number of open files, <SMALL>NFILE</SMALL> and
<SMALL>NINODE.</SMALL> The reason that PostgreSQL has a limit on
the number of allowed backend processes is so your system won't run
out of resources.</P>
<P>In PostgreSQL versions prior to 6.5, the maximum number of
backends was 64, and changing it required a rebuild after altering
the MaxBackendId constant in
<I>include/storage/sinvaladt.h</I>.</P>
<H4><Aname="3.10">3.10</A>) What are the <I>pg_sorttempNNN.NN</I>
files in my database directory?</H4>
<P>They are temporary files generated by the query executor. For
example, if a sort needs to be done to satisfy an <SMALL>ORDER
BY,</SMALL> and the sort requires more space than the backend's
<I>-S</I> parameter allows, then temporary files are created to
hold the extra data.</P>
<P>The temporary files should be deleted automatically, but might
not if a backend crashes during a sort. If you have no backends
running at the time, it is safe to delete the pg_tempNNN.NN
files.</P>
<HR>
<HR>
<H2align="center">Operational Questions</H2>
<H2align="center">Operational Questions</H2>
<H4><Aname="4.1">4.1</A>) What is the difference between binary cursors and normal cursors?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.1">4.1</A>) What is the difference between binary
cursors and normal cursors?</H4>
<P>See the <SMALL>DECLARE</SMALL> manual page for a description.</P>
<P>See the <SMALL>DECLARE</SMALL> manual page for a
description.</P>
<H4><Aname="4.2">4.2</A>) How do I <SMALL>SELECT</SMALL> only the first few rows of a query?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.2">4.2</A>) How do I <SMALL>SELECT</SMALL> only the
first few rows of a query?</H4>
<P>See the <SMALL>FETCH</SMALL> manual page, or use <SMALL>SELECT</SMALL> ... <SMALL>LIMIT</SMALL>....</P>
<P>See the <SMALL>FETCH</SMALL> manual page, or use
<P>The entire query may have to be evaluated, even if you only want the first few rows. Consider a query that has an <SMALL>ORDER BY.</SMALL> If there is an index that matches the <SMALL>ORDER BY</SMALL>, PostgreSQL may be able to evaluate only the first few records requested, or the entire query may have to be evaluated until the desired rows have been generated.</P>
<P>The entire query may have to be evaluated, even if you only want
the first few rows. Consider a query that has an <SMALL>ORDER
BY.</SMALL> If there is an index that matches the <SMALL>ORDER
BY</SMALL>, PostgreSQL may be able to evaluate only the first few
records requested, or the entire query may have to be evaluated
until the desired rows have been generated.</P>
<H4><Aname="4.3">4.3</A>) How do I get a list of tables or other things I can see in <I>psql</I>?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.3">4.3</A>) How do I get a list of tables or other
things I can see in <I>psql</I>?</H4>
<P>You can read the source code for <I>psql</I> in file <I>pgsql/src/bin/psql/describe.c</I>. It contains <SMALL>SQL</SMALL> commands that generate the output for psql's backslash commands. You can also start <I>psql</I> with the <I>-E</I> option so it will print out the queries it uses to execute the commands you give.</P>
<P>You can read the source code for <I>psql</I> in file
<I>pgsql/src/bin/psql/describe.c</I>. It contains
<SMALL>SQL</SMALL> commands that generate the output for psql's
backslash commands. You can also start <I>psql</I> with the
<I>-E</I> option so it will print out the queries it uses to
execute the commands you give.</P>
<H4><Aname="4.4">4.4</A>) How do you remove a column from a table?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.4">4.4</A>) How do you remove a column from a
table?</H4>
<P>We do not support <SMALL>ALTER TABLE DROP COLUMN,</SMALL> but do this:</P>
<P>We do not support <SMALL>ALTER TABLE DROP COLUMN,</SMALL> but do
this:</P>
<PRE>
<PRE>
SELECT ... -- select all columns but the one you want to remove
SELECT ... -- select all columns but the one you want to remove
INTO TABLE new_table
INTO TABLE new_table
...
@@ -444,7 +822,8 @@
...
@@ -444,7 +822,8 @@
ALTER TABLE new_table RENAME TO old_table;
ALTER TABLE new_table RENAME TO old_table;
</PRE>
</PRE>
<H4><Aname="4.5">4.5</A>) What is the maximum size for a row, a table, and a database?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.5">4.5</A>) What is the maximum size for a row, a
table, and a database?</H4>
<P>These are the limits:</P>
<P>These are the limits:</P>
<PRE>
<PRE>
...
@@ -456,17 +835,27 @@
...
@@ -456,17 +835,27 @@
Maximum number of columns in a table? 250-1600 depending on column types
Maximum number of columns in a table? 250-1600 depending on column types
Maximum number of indexes on a table? unlimited
Maximum number of indexes on a table? unlimited
</PRE>
</PRE>
Of course, these are not actually unlimited, but limited to available disk space and memory/swap space. Performance may suffer when these values get unusually large.
Of course, these are not actually unlimited, but limited to
available disk space and memory/swap space. Performance may suffer
when these values get unusually large.
<P>The maximum table size of 16 TB does not require large file support from the operating system. Large tables are stored as multiple 1 GB files so file system size limits are not important.</P>
<P>The maximum table size of 16 TB does not require large file
support from the operating system. Large tables are stored as
multiple 1 GB files so file system size limits are not
important.</P>
<P>The maximum table size and maximum number of columns can be increased if the default block size is increased to 32k.</P>
<P>The maximum table size and maximum number of columns can be
increased if the default block size is increased to 32k.</P>
<H4><Aname="4.6">4.6</A>) How much database disk space is required to store data from a typical text file?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.6">4.6</A>) How much database disk space is required
to store data from a typical text file?</H4>
<P>A PostgreSQL database may need six-and-a-half times the disk space required to store the data in a flat file.</P>
<P>A PostgreSQL database may need six-and-a-half times the disk
space required to store the data in a flat file.</P>
<P>Consider a file of 300,000 lines with two integers on each line. The flat file is 2.4 MB. The size of the PostgreSQL database file containing this data can be estimated at 14 MB:</P>
<P>Consider a file of 300,000 lines with two integers on each line.
The flat file is 2.4 MB. The size of the PostgreSQL database file
containing this data can be estimated at 14 MB:</P>
<P>Indexes do not require as much overhead, but do contain the data that is being indexed, so they can be large also.</P>
<P>Indexes do not require as much overhead, but do contain the data
that is being indexed, so they can be large also.</P>
<H4><Aname="4.7">4.7</A>) How do I find out what tables or indexes are defined in the database?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.7">4.7</A>) How do I find out what tables or indexes
are defined in the database?</H4>
<P><I>psql</I> has a variety of backslash commands to show such information. Use \? to see them.</P>
<P><I>psql</I> has a variety of backslash commands to show such
information. Use \? to see them.</P>
<P>Also try the file <I>pgsql/src/tutorial/syscat.source</I>. It illustrates many of the <SMALL>SELECT</SMALL>s needed to get information from the database system tables.</P>
<P>Also try the file <I>pgsql/src/tutorial/syscat.source</I>. It
illustrates many of the <SMALL>SELECT</SMALL>s needed to get
information from the database system tables.</P>
<H4><Aname="4.8">4.8</A>) My queries are slow or don't make use of the indexes. Why?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.8">4.8</A>) My queries are slow or don't make use of
the indexes. Why?</H4>
<P>PostgreSQL does not automatically maintain statistics. V<SMALL>ACUUM</SMALL> must be run to update the statistics. After statistics are updated, the optimizer knows how many rows in the table, and can better decide if it should use indexes. Note that the optimizer does not use indexes in cases when the table is small because a sequential scan would be faster.</P>
<P>PostgreSQL does not automatically maintain statistics.
V<SMALL>ACUUM</SMALL> must be run to update the statistics. After
statistics are updated, the optimizer knows how many rows in the
table, and can better decide if it should use indexes. Note that
the optimizer does not use indexes in cases when the table is small
because a sequential scan would be faster.</P>
<P>For column-specific optimization statistics, use <SMALL>VACUUM ANALYZE.</SMALL> V<SMALL>ACUUM ANALYZE</SMALL> is important for complex multijoin queries, so the optimizer can estimate the number of rows returned from each table, and choose the proper join order. The backend does not keep track of column statistics on its own, so <SMALL>VACUUM ANALYZE</SMALL> must be run to collect them periodically.</P>
<P>For column-specific optimization statistics, use <SMALL>VACUUM
ANALYZE.</SMALL> V<SMALL>ACUUM ANALYZE</SMALL> is important for
complex multijoin queries, so the optimizer can estimate the number
of rows returned from each table, and choose the proper join order.
The backend does not keep track of column statistics on its own, so
<SMALL>VACUUM ANALYZE</SMALL> must be run to collect them
periodically.</P>
<P>Indexes are usually not used for <SMALL>ORDER BY</SMALL> or joins. A sequential scan followed by an explicit sort is faster than an indexscan of all tuples of a large table. This is because random disk access is very slow.</P>
<P>Indexes are usually not used for <SMALL>ORDER BY</SMALL> or
joins. A sequential scan followed by an explicit sort is faster
than an indexscan of all tuples of a large table. This is because
random disk access is very slow.</P>
<P>When using wild-card operators such as <SMALL>LIKE</SMALL> or <I>~</I>, indexes can only be used if the beginning of the search is anchored to the start of the string. So, to use indexes, <SMALL>LIKE</SMALL> searches should not begin with <I>%</I>, and <I>~</I>(regular expression searches) should start with <I>^</I>.</P>
<P>When using wild-card operators such as <SMALL>LIKE</SMALL> or
<I>~</I>, indexes can only be used if the beginning of the search
is anchored to the start of the string. So, to use indexes,
<SMALL>LIKE</SMALL> searches should not begin with <I>%</I>, and
<I>~</I>(regular expression searches) should start with
<I>^</I>.</P>
<H4><Aname="4.9">4.9</A>) How do I see how the query optimizer is evaluating my query?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.9">4.9</A>) How do I see how the query optimizer is
evaluating my query?</H4>
<P>See the <SMALL>EXPLAIN</SMALL> manual page.</P>
<P>See the <SMALL>EXPLAIN</SMALL> manual page.</P>
<H4><Aname="4.10">4.10</A>) What is an R-tree index?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.10">4.10</A>) What is an R-tree index?</H4>
<P>An R-tree index is used for indexing spatial data. A hash index can't handle range searches. A B-tree index only handles range searches in a single dimension. R-trees can handle multi-dimensional data. For example, if an R-tree index can be built on an attribute of type <I>point</I>, the system can more efficiently answer queries such as "select all points within a bounding rectangle."</P>
<P>An R-tree index is used for indexing spatial data. A hash index
can't handle range searches. A B-tree index only handles range
searches in a single dimension. R-trees can handle
multi-dimensional data. For example, if an R-tree index can be
built on an attribute of type <I>point</I>, the system can more
efficiently answer queries such as "select all points within a
bounding rectangle."</P>
<P>The canonical paper that describes the original R-tree design is:</P>
<P>The canonical paper that describes the original R-tree design
is:</P>
<P>Guttman, A. "R-trees: A Dynamic Index Structure for Spatial Searching." Proceedings of the 1984 ACM SIGMOD Int'l Conf on Mgmt of Data, 45-57.</P>
<P>Guttman, A. "R-trees: A Dynamic Index Structure for Spatial
Searching." Proceedings of the 1984 ACM SIGMOD Int'l Conf on Mgmt
of Data, 45-57.</P>
<P>You can also find this paper in Stonebraker's "Readings in Database Systems".</P>
<P>You can also find this paper in Stonebraker's "Readings in
Database Systems".</P>
<P>Built-in R-trees can handle polygons and boxes. In theory, R-trees can be extended to handle higher number of dimensions. In practice, extending R-trees requires a bit of work and we don't currently have any documentation on how to do it.</P>
<P>Built-in R-trees can handle polygons and boxes. In theory,
R-trees can be extended to handle higher number of dimensions. In
practice, extending R-trees requires a bit of work and we don't
currently have any documentation on how to do it.</P>
<H4><Aname="4.11">4.11</A>) What is the Genetic Query Optimizer?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.11">4.11</A>) What is the Genetic Query
Optimizer?</H4>
<P>The <SMALL>GEQO</SMALL> module speeds query optimization when joining many tables by means of a Genetic Algorithm (GA). It allows the handling of large join queries through nonexhaustive search.</P>
<P>The <SMALL>GEQO</SMALL> module speeds query optimization when
joining many tables by means of a Genetic Algorithm (GA). It allows
the handling of large join queries through nonexhaustive
search.</P>
<H4><Aname="4.12">4.12</A>) How do I perform regular expression searches and case-insensitive regular expression searches? How do I use an index for case-insensitive searches?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.12">4.12</A>) How do I perform regular expression
searches and case-insensitive regular expression searches? How do I
use an index for case-insensitive searches?</H4>
<P>The <I>~</I> operator does regular expression matching, and <I>~*</I> does case-insensitive regular expression matching. The case-insensitive variant of <SMALL>LIKE</SMALL> is called <SMALL>ILIKE</SMALL> in PostgreSQL 7.1 and later.</P>
<P>The <I>~</I> operator does regular expression matching, and
<I>~*</I> does case-insensitive regular expression matching. The
case-insensitive variant of <SMALL>LIKE</SMALL> is called
<SMALL>ILIKE</SMALL> in PostgreSQL 7.1 and later.</P>
<P>Case-insensitive equality comparisons are normally expressed as:</P>
<P>Case-insensitive equality comparisons are normally expressed
as:</P>
<PRE>
<PRE>
SELECT *
SELECT *
FROM tab
FROM tab
WHERE lower(col) = 'abc'
WHERE lower(col) = 'abc'
</PRE>
</PRE>
This will not use an standard index. However, if you create a functional index, it will be used:
This will not use an standard index. However, if you create a
functional index, it will be used:
<PRE>
<PRE>
CREATE INDEX tabindex on tab (lower(col));
CREATE INDEX tabindex on tab (lower(col));
</PRE>
</PRE>
<H4><Aname="4.13">4.13</A>) In a query, how do I detect if a field is <SMALL>NULL</SMALL>?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.13">4.13</A>) In a query, how do I detect if a field
is <SMALL>NULL</SMALL>?</H4>
<P>You test the column with <SMALL>IS NULL</SMALL> and <SMALL>IS NOT NULL</SMALL>.</P>
<P>You test the column with <SMALL>IS NULL</SMALL> and <SMALL>IS
NOT NULL</SMALL>.</P>
<H4><Aname="4.14">4.14</A>) What is the difference between the various character types?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.14">4.14</A>) What is the difference between the
<P>You will see the internal name when examining system catalogs and in some error messages.</P>
<P>You will see the internal name when examining system catalogs
and in some error messages.</P>
<P>The last four types above are "varlena" types (i.e., the first four bytes on disk are the length, followed by the data). Thus the actual space used is slightly greater than the declared size. However, these data types are also subject to compression or being stored out-of-line by <SMALL>TOAST</SMALL>, so the space on disk might also be less than expected.</P>
<P>The last four types above are "varlena" types (i.e., the first
<P><SMALL>CHAR()</SMALL> is best when storing strings that are usually the same length. <SMALL>VARCHAR()</SMALL> is best when storing variable-length strings but it limits how long a string can be. <SMALL>TEXT</SMALL> is for strings of unlimited length, maximum 1 gigabyte. <SMALL>BYTEA</SMALL> is for storing binary data, particularly values that include <SMALL>NULL</SMALL> bytes.</P>
four bytes on disk are the length, followed by the data). Thus the
actual space used is slightly greater than the declared size.
<H4><Aname="4.15.1">4.15.1</A>) How do I create a serial/auto-incrementing field?</H4>
However, these data types are also subject to compression or being
stored out-of-line by <SMALL>TOAST</SMALL>, so the space on disk
<P>PostgreSQL supports a <SMALL>SERIAL</SMALL> data type. It auto-creates a sequence and index on the column. For example, this:</P>
might also be less than expected.</P>
<P><SMALL>CHAR()</SMALL> is best when storing strings that are
usually the same length. <SMALL>VARCHAR()</SMALL> is best when
storing variable-length strings but it limits how long a string can
be. <SMALL>TEXT</SMALL> is for strings of unlimited length, maximum
1 gigabyte. <SMALL>BYTEA</SMALL> is for storing binary data,
particularly values that include <SMALL>NULL</SMALL> bytes.</P>
<H4><Aname="4.15.1">4.15.1</A>) How do I create a
serial/auto-incrementing field?</H4>
<P>PostgreSQL supports a <SMALL>SERIAL</SMALL> data type. It
auto-creates a sequence and index on the column. For example,
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX person_id_key ON person ( id );
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX person_id_key ON person ( id );
</PRE>
</PRE>
See the <I>create_sequence</I> manual page for more information about sequences. You can also use each row's <I>OID</I> field as a unique value. However, if you need to dump and reload the database, you need to use <I>pg_dump</I>'s <I>-o</I> option or <SMALL>COPY WITH OIDS</SMALL> option to preserve the <SMALL>OID</SMALL>s.
See the <I>create_sequence</I> manual page for more information
about sequences. You can also use each row's <I>OID</I> field as a
<H4><Aname="4.15.2">4.15.2</A>) How do I get the value of a <SMALL>SERIAL</SMALL> insert?</H4>
unique value. However, if you need to dump and reload the database,
you need to use <I>pg_dump</I>'s <I>-o</I> option or <SMALL>COPY
<P>One approach is to retrieve the next <SMALL>SERIAL</SMALL> value from the sequence object with the <I>nextval()</I> function <I>before</I> inserting and then insert it explicitly. Using the example table in <Ahref="#4.15.1">4.15.1</A>, that might look like this in Perl:</P>
WITH OIDS</SMALL> option to preserve the <SMALL>OID</SMALL>s.
<H4><Aname="4.15.2">4.15.2</A>) How do I get the value of a
<SMALL>SERIAL</SMALL> insert?</H4>
<P>One approach is to retrieve the next <SMALL>SERIAL</SMALL> value
from the sequence object with the <I>nextval()</I> function
<I>before</I> inserting and then insert it explicitly. Using the
example table in <Ahref="#4.15.1">4.15.1</A>, that might look like
this in Perl:</P>
<PRE>
<PRE>
new_id = output of "SELECT nextval('person_id_seq')"
new_id = output of "SELECT nextval('person_id_seq')"
INSERT INTO person (id, name) VALUES (new_id, 'Blaise Pascal');
INSERT INTO person (id, name) VALUES (new_id, 'Blaise Pascal');
</PRE>
</PRE>
You would then also have the new value stored in <CODE>new_id</CODE> for use in other queries (e.g., as a foreign key to the <CODE>person</CODE> table). Note that the name of the automatically created <SMALL>SEQUENCE</SMALL> object will be named <<I>table</I>>_<<I>serialcolumn</I>>_<I>seq</I>, where <I>table</I> and <I>serialcolumn</I> are the names of your table and your <SMALL>SERIAL</SMALL> column, respectively.
You would then also have the new value stored in
<CODE>new_id</CODE> for use in other queries (e.g., as a foreign
<P>Alternatively, you could retrieve the assigned <SMALL>SERIAL</SMALL> value with the <I>currval</I>() function <I>after</I> it was inserted by default, e.g.,</P>
key to the <CODE>person</CODE> table). Note that the name of the
automatically created <SMALL>SEQUENCE</SMALL> object will be named
<<I>table</I>>_<<I>serialcolumn</I>>_<I>seq</I>, where
<I>table</I> and <I>serialcolumn</I> are the names of your table
and your <SMALL>SERIAL</SMALL> column, respectively.
<P>Alternatively, you could retrieve the assigned
<SMALL>SERIAL</SMALL> value with the <I>currval</I>() function
<I>after</I> it was inserted by default, e.g.,</P>
<PRE>
<PRE>
INSERT INTO person (name) VALUES ('Blaise Pascal');
INSERT INTO person (name) VALUES ('Blaise Pascal');
new_id = output of "SELECT currval('person_id_seq')";
new_id = output of "SELECT currval('person_id_seq')";
</PRE>
</PRE>
Finally, you could use the <Ahref="#4.16"><SMALL>OID</SMALL></A> returned from the <SMALL>INSERT</SMALL> statement to look up the default value, though this is probably the least portable approach. In Perl, using DBI with Edmund Mergl's DBD::Pg module, the oid value is made available via <I>$sth->{pg_oid_status}</I> after <I>$sth->execute()</I>.
Finally, you could use the <Ahref="#4.16"><SMALL>OID</SMALL></A>
returned from the <SMALL>INSERT</SMALL> statement to look up the
<H4><Aname="4.15.3">4.15.3</A>) Don't <I>currval()</I> and <I>nextval()</I> lead to a race condition with other users?</H4>
default value, though this is probably the least portable approach.
In Perl, using DBI with Edmund Mergl's DBD::Pg module, the oid
<P>No. Currval() returns the current value assigned by your backend, not by all users.</P>
value is made available via <I>$sth->{pg_oid_status}</I> after
<I>$sth->execute()</I>.
<H4><Aname="4.16">4.16</A>) What is an <SMALL>OID</SMALL>? What is a <SMALL>TID</SMALL>?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.15.3">4.15.3</A>) Don't <I>currval()</I> and
<P><SMALL>OID</SMALL>s are PostgreSQL's answer to unique row ids. Every row that is created in PostgreSQL gets a unique <SMALL>OID</SMALL>. All <SMALL>OID</SMALL>s generated during <I>initdb</I> are less than 16384 (from <I>backend/access/transam.h</I>). All user-created <SMALL>OID</SMALL>s are equal to or greater than this. By default, all these <SMALL>OID</SMALL>s are unique not only within a table or database, but unique within the entire PostgreSQL installation.</P>
<I>nextval()</I> lead to a race condition with other users?</H4>
<P>PostgreSQL uses <SMALL>OID</SMALL>s in its internal system tables to link rows between tables. These <SMALL>OID</SMALL>s can be used to identify specific user rows and used in joins. It is recommended you use column type <SMALL>OID</SMALL> to store <SMALL>OID</SMALL> values. You can create an index on the <SMALL>OID</SMALL> field for faster access.</P>
<P>No. Currval() returns the current value assigned by your
backend, not by all users.</P>
<P>O<SMALL>ID</SMALL>s are assigned to all new rows from a central area that is used by all databases. If you want to change the <SMALL>OID</SMALL> to something else, or if you want to make a copy of the table, with the original <SMALL>OID</SMALL>s, there is no reason you can't do it:</P>
<H4><Aname="4.16">4.16</A>) What is an <SMALL>OID</SMALL>? What is
a <SMALL>TID</SMALL>?</H4>
<P><SMALL>OID</SMALL>s are PostgreSQL's answer to unique row ids.
Every row that is created in PostgreSQL gets a unique
<SMALL>OID</SMALL>. All <SMALL>OID</SMALL>s generated during
<I>initdb</I> are less than 16384 (from
<I>backend/access/transam.h</I>). All user-created
<SMALL>OID</SMALL>s are equal to or greater than this. By default,
all these <SMALL>OID</SMALL>s are unique not only within a table or
database, but unique within the entire PostgreSQL installation.</P>
<P>PostgreSQL uses <SMALL>OID</SMALL>s in its internal system
tables to link rows between tables. These <SMALL>OID</SMALL>s can
be used to identify specific user rows and used in joins. It is
recommended you use column type <SMALL>OID</SMALL> to store
<SMALL>OID</SMALL> values. You can create an index on the
<SMALL>OID</SMALL> field for faster access.</P>
<P>O<SMALL>ID</SMALL>s are assigned to all new rows from a central
area that is used by all databases. If you want to change the
<SMALL>OID</SMALL> to something else, or if you want to make a copy
of the table, with the original <SMALL>OID</SMALL>s, there is no
<P>O<SMALL>ID</SMALL>s are stored as 4-byte integers, and will overflow at 4 billion. No one has reported this ever happening, and we plan to have the limit removed before anyone does.</P>
<P>O<SMALL>ID</SMALL>s are stored as 4-byte integers, and will
overflow at 4 billion. No one has reported this ever happening, and
we plan to have the limit removed before anyone does.</P>
<P>T<SMALL>ID</SMALL>s are used to identify specific physical rows with block and offset values. T<SMALL>ID</SMALL>s change after rows are modified or reloaded. They are used by index entries to point to physical rows.</P>
<P>T<SMALL>ID</SMALL>s are used to identify specific physical rows
with block and offset values. T<SMALL>ID</SMALL>s change after rows
are modified or reloaded. They are used by index entries to point
to physical rows.</P>
<H4><Aname="4.17">4.17</A>) What is the meaning of some of the terms used in PostgreSQL?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.17">4.17</A>) What is the meaning of some of the
terms used in PostgreSQL?</H4>
<P>Some of the source code and older documentation use terms that have more common usage. Here are some:</P>
<P>Some of the source code and older documentation use terms that
<P>A list of general database terms can be found at: <Ahref="http://www.comptechnews.com/~reaster/dbdesign.html">http://www.comptechnews.com/~reaster/dbdesign.html</A></P>
<P>A list of general database terms can be found at: <Ahref=
<H4><Aname="4.18">4.18</A>) Why do I get the error <I>"ERROR: Memory exhausted in AllocSetAlloc()"</I>?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.18">4.18</A>) Why do I get the error <I>"ERROR:
Memory exhausted in AllocSetAlloc()"</I>?</H4>
<P>If you are running a version older than 7.1, an upgrade may fix the problem. Also it is possible you have run out of virtual memory on your system, or your kernel has a low limit for certain resources. Try this before starting <I>postmaster</I>:</P>
<P>If you are running a version older than 7.1, an upgrade may fix
the problem. Also it is possible you have run out of virtual memory
on your system, or your kernel has a low limit for certain
resources. Try this before starting <I>postmaster</I>:</P>
<PRE>
<PRE>
ulimit -d 262144
ulimit -d 262144
limit datasize 256m
limit datasize 256m
</PRE>
</PRE>
Depending on your shell, only one of these may succeed, but it will set your process data segment limit much higher and perhaps allow the query to complete. This command applies to the current process, and all subprocesses created after the command is run. If you are having a problem with the <SMALL>SQL</SMALL> client because the backend is returning too much data, try it before starting the client.
Depending on your shell, only one of these may succeed, but it will
set your process data segment limit much higher and perhaps allow
the query to complete. This command applies to the current process,
and all subprocesses created after the command is run. If you are
having a problem with the <SMALL>SQL</SMALL> client because the
backend is returning too much data, try it before starting the
client.
<H4><Aname="4.19">4.19</A>) How do I tell what PostgreSQL version I am running?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.19">4.19</A>) How do I tell what PostgreSQL version
I am running?</H4>
<P>From <I>psql</I>, type <CODE>select version();</CODE></P>
<P>From <I>psql</I>, type <CODE>select version();</CODE></P>
<H4><Aname="4.20">4.20</A>) Why does my large-object operations get <I>"invalid large obj descriptor"</I>?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.20">4.20</A>) Why does my large-object operations
get <I>"invalid large obj descriptor"</I>?</H4>
<P>You need to put <CODE>BEGIN WORK</CODE> and <CODE>COMMIT</CODE> around any use of a large object handle, that is, surrounding <CODE>lo_open</CODE> ... <CODE>lo_close.</CODE></P>
<P>You need to put <CODE>BEGIN WORK</CODE> and <CODE>COMMIT</CODE>
around any use of a large object handle, that is, surrounding
<P>Currently PostgreSQL enforces the rule by closing large object handles at transaction commit. So the first attempt to do anything with the handle will draw <I>invalid large obj descriptor</I>. So code that used to work (at least most of the time) will now generate that error message if you fail to use a transaction.</P>
<P>Currently PostgreSQL enforces the rule by closing large object
handles at transaction commit. So the first attempt to do anything
with the handle will draw <I>invalid large obj descriptor</I>. So
code that used to work (at least most of the time) will now
generate that error message if you fail to use a transaction.</P>
<P>If you are using a client interface like <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> you may need to set <CODE>auto-commit off.</CODE></P>
<P>If you are using a client interface like <SMALL>ODBC</SMALL> you
may need to set <CODE>auto-commit off.</CODE></P>
<H4><Aname="4.21">4.21</A>) How do I create a column that will default to the current time?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.21">4.21</A>) How do I create a column that will
<H4><Aname="4.22">4.22</A>) Why are my subqueries using <CODE><SMALL>IN</SMALL></CODE> so slow?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.22">4.22</A>) Why are my subqueries using
<CODE><SMALL>IN</SMALL></CODE> so slow?</H4>
<P>Currently, we join subqueries to outer queries by sequentially scanning the result of the subquery for each row of the outer query. A workaround is to replace <CODE>IN</CODE> with <CODE>EXISTS</CODE>:</P>
<P>Currently, we join subqueries to outer queries by sequentially
scanning the result of the subquery for each row of the outer
query. A workaround is to replace <CODE>IN</CODE> with
<P>These identical queries join t1.col to t2.col, and also return any unjoined rows in t1 (those with no match in t2). A <SMALL>RIGHT</SMALL> join would add unjoined rows of t2. A <SMALL>FULL</SMALL> join would return the matched rows plus all unjoined rows from t1 and t2. The word <SMALL>OUTER</SMALL> is optional and is assumed in <SMALL>LEFT</SMALL>, <SMALL>RIGHT</SMALL>, and <SMALL>FULL</SMALL> joins. Ordinary joins are called <SMALL>INNER</SMALL> joins.</P>
<P>These identical queries join t1.col to t2.col, and also return
any unjoined rows in t1 (those with no match in t2). A
<P>In previous releases, outer joins can be simulated using <SMALL>UNION</SMALL> and <SMALL>NOT IN</SMALL>. For example, when joining <I>tab1</I> and <I>tab2</I>, the following query does an <I>outer</I> join of the two tables:<BR>
<SMALL>RIGHT</SMALL> join would add unjoined rows of t2. A
<SMALL>FULL</SMALL> join would return the matched rows plus all
unjoined rows from t1 and t2. The word <SMALL>OUTER</SMALL> is
optional and is assumed in <SMALL>LEFT</SMALL>,
<SMALL>RIGHT</SMALL>, and <SMALL>FULL</SMALL> joins. Ordinary joins
are called <SMALL>INNER</SMALL> joins.</P>
<P>In previous releases, outer joins can be simulated using
<SMALL>UNION</SMALL> and <SMALL>NOT IN</SMALL>. For example, when
joining <I>tab1</I> and <I>tab2</I>, the following query does an
<H4><Aname="4.24">4.24</A>) How do I perform queries using multiple databases?</H4>
<H4><Aname="4.24">4.24</A>) How do I perform queries using
multiple databases?</H4>
<P>There is no way to query any database except the current one. Because PostgreSQL loads database-specific system catalogs, it is uncertain how a cross-database query should even behave.</P>
<P>There is no way to query any database except the current one.
Because PostgreSQL loads database-specific system catalogs, it is
uncertain how a cross-database query should even behave.</P>
<P>Of course, a client can make simultaneous connections to different databases and merge the information that way.</P>
<P>Of course, a client can make simultaneous connections to
different databases and merge the information that way.</P>
<HR>
<HR>
<H2align="center">Extending PostgreSQL</H2>
<H2align="center">Extending PostgreSQL</H2>
<H4><Aname="5.1">5.1</A>) I wrote a user-defined function. When I run it in <I>psql</I>, why does it dump core?</H4>
<H4><Aname="5.1">5.1</A>) I wrote a user-defined function. When I
run it in <I>psql</I>, why does it dump core?</H4>
<P>The problem could be a number of things. Try testing your user-defined function in a stand-alone test program first.</P>
<P>The problem could be a number of things. Try testing your
user-defined function in a stand-alone test program first.</P>
<H4><Aname="5.2">5.2</A>) How can I contribute some nifty new types and functions to PostgreSQL?</H4>
<H4><Aname="5.2">5.2</A>) How can I contribute some nifty new
types and functions to PostgreSQL?</H4>
<P>Send your extensions to the <I>pgsql-hackers</I> mailing list, and they will eventually end up in the <I>contrib/</I> subdirectory.</P>
<P>Send your extensions to the <I>pgsql-hackers</I> mailing list,
and they will eventually end up in the <I>contrib/</I>
subdirectory.</P>
<H4><Aname="5.3">5.3</A>) How do I write a C function to return a tuple?</H4>
<H4><Aname="5.3">5.3</A>) How do I write a C function to return a
tuple?</H4>
<P>This requires wizardry so extreme that the authors have never tried it, though in principle it can be done.</P>
<P>This requires wizardry so extreme that the authors have never
tried it, though in principle it can be done.</P>
<H4><Aname="5.4">5.4</A>) I have changed a source file. Why does the recompile not see the change?</H4>
<H4><Aname="5.4">5.4</A>) I have changed a source file. Why does
the recompile not see the change?</H4>
<P>The <I>Makefiles</I> do not have the proper dependencies for include files. You have to do a <I>make clean</I> and then another <I>make</I>. If you are using <SMALL>GCC</SMALL> you can use the <I>--enable-depend</I> option of <I>configure</I> to have the compiler compute the dependencies automatically.</P>
<P>The <I>Makefiles</I> do not have the proper dependencies for
include files. You have to do a <I>make clean</I> and then another
<I>make</I>. If you are using <SMALL>GCC</SMALL> you can use the
<I>--enable-depend</I> option of <I>configure</I> to have the
compiler compute the dependencies automatically.</P>
