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Postgres FD Implementation
Commit 4f34f55d authored by Peter Eisentraut's avatar Peter Eisentraut
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Description of table expressions, including join syntax, from Robert B. 

Easter <reaster@comptechnews.com>, heavily massaged by me.  Also cleaned up
value expressions a bit.
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doc/src/sgml/func.sgml
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<!-- $Header: /cvsroot/pgsql/doc/src/sgml/func.sgml,v 1.48 2001/01/20 20:59:28 petere Exp $ --> <!-- $Header: /cvsroot/pgsql/doc/src/sgml/func.sgml,v 1.49 2001/01/21 22:02:01 petere Exp $ -->
<chapter id="functions"> <chapter id="functions">
<title>Functions and Operators</title> <title>Functions and Operators</title>
...@@ -24,6 +24,102 @@ ...@@ -24,6 +24,102 @@
other implementations. other implementations.
</para> </para>
<sect1 id="functions-logical">
<title>Logical Operators</title>
<para>
The usual logical operators are available:
<simplelist>
<member>AND</member>
<member>OR</member>
<member>NOT</member>
</simplelist>
SQL uses a three-valued boolean logic where NULL represents
<quote>unknown</quote>. Observe the following truth tables:
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="4">
<thead>
<row>
<entry><replaceable>a</replaceable></entry>
<entry><replaceable>b</replaceable></entry>
<entry><replaceable>a</replaceable> AND <replaceable>b</replaceable></entry>
<entry><replaceable>a</replaceable> OR <replaceable>b</replaceable></entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
<entry>NULL</entry>
<entry>NULL</entry>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>NULL</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>NULL</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</informaltable>
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry><replaceable>a</replaceable></entry>
<entry>NOT <replaceable>a</replaceable></entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>NULL</entry>
<entry>NULL</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</informaltable>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-comparison"> <sect1 id="functions-comparison">
<title>Comparison Operators</title> <title>Comparison Operators</title>
...@@ -88,6 +184,23 @@ ...@@ -88,6 +184,23 @@
<literal>&lt;</literal> operator to compare a boolean with <literal>&lt;</literal> operator to compare a boolean with
<literal>3</literal>). <literal>3</literal>).
</para> </para>
<para>
To check whether a value is or is not NULL, use the constructs
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS NULL
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS NOT NULL
</synopsis>
Do <emphasis>not</emphasis> use
<literal><replaceable>expression</replaceable> = NULL</literal>
because NULL is not <quote>equal to</quote> NULL. (NULL represents
an unknown value, so it is not known whether two unknown values are
equal.) <productname>Postgres</productname> implicitly converts
<literal>= NULL</literal> clauses to <literal>IS NULL</literal> to
allow some broken client applications (such as
<productname>Microsoft Access</productname>) to work, but this may
be discontinued in a future release.
</para>
</sect1> </sect1>
......
doc/src/sgml/syntax.sgml
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<!-- <!--
$Header: /cvsroot/pgsql/doc/src/sgml/syntax.sgml,v 1.35 2001/01/13 23:58:55 petere Exp $ $Header: /cvsroot/pgsql/doc/src/sgml/syntax.sgml,v 1.36 2001/01/21 22:02:01 petere Exp $
--> -->
<chapter id="sql-syntax"> <chapter id="sql-syntax">
...@@ -17,10 +17,10 @@ $Header: /cvsroot/pgsql/doc/src/sgml/syntax.sgml,v 1.35 2001/01/13 23:58:55 pete ...@@ -17,10 +17,10 @@ $Header: /cvsroot/pgsql/doc/src/sgml/syntax.sgml,v 1.35 2001/01/13 23:58:55 pete
<para> <para>
SQL input consists of a sequence of SQL input consists of a sequence of
<firstterm>commands</firstterm>. A command is composed of a <firstterm>commands</firstterm>. A command is composed of a
sequence of <firstterm>tokens</firstterm>, which depend on the sequence of <firstterm>tokens</firstterm>, terminated by a
syntax of the particular command, terminated by a semicolon semicolon (<quote>;</quote>). The end of the input stream also
(<quote>;</quote>). The end of the input stream also terminates a terminates a command. Which tokens are valid depends on the syntax
command. of the particular command.
</para> </para>
<para> <para>
...@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ $Header: /cvsroot/pgsql/doc/src/sgml/syntax.sgml,v 1.35 2001/01/13 23:58:55 pete ...@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ $Header: /cvsroot/pgsql/doc/src/sgml/syntax.sgml,v 1.35 2001/01/13 23:58:55 pete
<informalexample id="sql-syntax-ex-commands"> <informalexample id="sql-syntax-ex-commands">
<para> <para>
For example, the following is (lexically) valid SQL input: For example, the following is (syntactically) valid SQL input:
<programlisting> <programlisting>
SELECT * FROM MY_TABLE; SELECT * FROM MY_TABLE;
UPDATE MY_TABLE SET A = 5; UPDATE MY_TABLE SET A = 5;
...@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ INSERT INTO MY_TABLE VALUES (3, 'hi there'); ...@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ INSERT INTO MY_TABLE VALUES (3, 'hi there');
key word can be letters, digits key word can be letters, digits
(<literal>0</literal>-<literal>9</literal>), or underscores, (<literal>0</literal>-<literal>9</literal>), or underscores,
although the SQL standard will not define a key word that contains although the SQL standard will not define a key word that contains
digits or start or ends with an underscore. digits or starts or ends with an underscore.
</para> </para>
<para> <para>
...@@ -181,7 +181,7 @@ UPDATE "my_table" SET "a" = 5; ...@@ -181,7 +181,7 @@ UPDATE "my_table" SET "a" = 5;
constants are discussed afterwards. constants are discussed afterwards.
</para> </para>
<sect3> <sect3 id="sql-syntax-strings">
<title>String Constants</title> <title>String Constants</title>
<para> <para>
...@@ -651,251 +651,244 @@ CAST ( '<replaceable>string</replaceable>' AS <replaceable>type</replaceable> ) ...@@ -651,251 +651,244 @@ CAST ( '<replaceable>string</replaceable>' AS <replaceable>type</replaceable> )
Transaction and command identifiers are 32 bit quantities. Transaction and command identifiers are 32 bit quantities.
</para> </para>
<para>
A column can be referenced in the form:
<synopsis>
<replaceable>corelation</replaceable>.<replaceable>columnname</replaceable> `['<replaceable>subscript</replaceable>`]'
</synopsis>
<replaceable>corelation</replaceable> is either the name of a
table, an alias for a table defined by means of a FROM clause, or
the keyword <literal>NEW</literal> or <literal>OLD</literal>.
(NEW and OLD can only appear in the action portion of a rule,
while other corelation names can be used in any SQL statement.)
The corelation name can be omitted if the column name is unique
across all the tables being used in the current query. If
<replaceable>column</replaceable> is of an array type, then the
optional <replaceable>subscript</replaceable> selects a specific
element in the array. If no subscript is provided, then the
whole array is selected. Refer to the description of the
particular commands in the <citetitle>PostgreSQL Reference
Manual</citetitle> for the allowed syntax in each case.
</para>
</sect1> </sect1>
<sect1 id="sql-expressions"> <sect1 id="sql-expressions">
<title>Expressions</title> <title>Value Expressions</title>
<para> <para>
<acronym>SQL92</acronym> allows <firstterm>expressions</firstterm> Value expressions are used in a variety of syntactic contexts, such
to transform data in tables. Expressions may contain operators as in the target list of the <command>SELECT</command> command, as
and functions. new column values in <command>INSERT</command> or
<command>UPDATE</command>, or in search conditions in a number of
commands. The result of a value expression is sometimes called a
<firstterm>scalar</firstterm>, to distinguish it from the result of
a table expression (which is a table). Value expressions are
therefore also called <firstterm>scalar expressions</firstterm> (or
even simply <firstterm>expressions</firstterm>). The expression
syntax allows the calculation of values from primitive parts using
arithmetic, logical, set, and other operations.
</para> </para>
<para> <para>
An expression is one of the following: A value expression is one of the following:
<simplelist> <itemizedlist>
<member>constant</member> <listitem>
<member>column</member> <para>
<member><replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>binary_operator</replaceable> <replaceable>expression</replaceable></member> A constant or literal value; see <xref linkend="sql-syntax-constants">.
<member><replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>right_unary_operator</replaceable></member>
<member><replaceable>left_unary_operator</replaceable> <replaceable>expression</replaceable></member>
<member>( <replaceable>expression</replaceable> )</member>
<member>parameter</member>
<member>functional expression</member>
<member>aggregate expression</member>
</simplelist>
</para> </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <para>
We have already discussed constants and columns. The three kinds of A column reference
operator expressions indicate respectively binary (infix), right-unary
(suffix) and left-unary (prefix) operators. The following sections
discuss the remaining options.
</para> </para>
</listitem>
<sect2> <listitem>
<title>Parameters</title>
<para> <para>
A <firstterm>parameter</firstterm> An operator invocation:
is used to indicate a parameter in a SQL function. Typically this <simplelist>
is used in SQL function definition statements. The form of a <member><replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> <replaceable>expression</replaceable> (binary infix operator)</member>
parameter is: <member><replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> (unary postfix operator)</member>
<member><replaceable>operator</replaceable> <replaceable>expression</replaceable> (unary prefix operator)</member>
<synopsis> </simplelist>
$<replaceable class="parameter">number</replaceable> where <replaceable>operator</replaceable> follows the syntax
</synopsis> rules of <xref linkend="sql-syntax-operators"> or is one of the
tokens <token>AND</token>, <token>OR</token>, and
<token>NOT</token>. What particular operators exist and whether
they are unary or binary depends on what operators have been
defined by the system or the user. <xref linkend="functions">
describes the built-in operators.
</para> </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <para>
For example, consider the definition of a function, <synopsis>( <replaceable>expression</replaceable> )</synopsis>
<function>dept</function>, as Parentheses are used to group subexpressions and override precedence.
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION dept (name)
RETURNS dept
AS 'select * from dept where name = $1'
LANGUAGE 'sql';
</programlisting>
</para> </para>
</sect2> </listitem>
<sect2>
<title>Functional Expressions</title>
<listitem>
<para> <para>
A <firstterm>functional expression</firstterm> A positional parameter reference, in the body of a function declaration.
is the name of a legal SQL function, followed by its argument list
enclosed in parentheses:
<synopsis>
<replaceable>function</replaceable> (<replaceable>expression</replaceable> [, <replaceable>expression</replaceable> ... ] )
</synopsis>
</para> </para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para> <para>
For example, the following computes the square root of an employee A function call
salary:
<programlisting>
sqrt(emp.salary)
</programlisting>
</para> </para>
</sect2> </listitem>
<sect2 id="syntax-aggregates">
<title>Aggregate Expressions</title>
<listitem>
<para> <para>
An <firstterm>aggregate expression</firstterm> represents the application An aggregate expression
of an aggregate function across the rows selected by a query. </para>
An aggregate function reduces multiple inputs to a single output value, </listitem>
such as the sum or average of the inputs.
The syntax of an aggregate expression is one of the following:
<simplelist>
<member><replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> (<replaceable>expression</replaceable>)</member>
<member><replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> (ALL <replaceable>expression</replaceable>)</member>
<member><replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> (DISTINCT <replaceable>expression</replaceable>)</member>
<member><replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> ( * )</member>
</simplelist>
where <replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> is a previously defined <listitem>
aggregate, and <replaceable>expression</replaceable> is any expression <para>
that doesn't itself contain an aggregate expression. A scalar subquery. This is an ordinary
<command>SELECT</command> in parenthesis that returns exactly one
row with one column. It is an error to use a subquery that
returns more than one row or more than one column in the context
of a value expression.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para> </para>
<para> <para>
The first form of aggregate expression invokes the aggregate across all In addition to this list, there are a number of contructs that can
input rows for which the given expression yields a non-null value. be classified as an expression but do not follow any general syntax
The second form is the same as the first, since ALL is the default. rules. These generally have the semantics of a function or
The third form invokes the aggregate for all distinct non-null values operator and are explained in the appropriate location in <xref
of the expression found in the input rows. The last form invokes the linkend="functions">. An example is the <literal>IS NULL</literal>
aggregate once for each input row regardless of null or non-null values; clause.
since no particular input value is specified, it is generally only useful
for the count() aggregate.
</para> </para>
<para> <para>
For example, count(*) yields the total number of input rows; We have already discussed constants in <xref
count(f1) yields the number of input rows in which f1 is non-null; linkend="sql-syntax-constants">. The following sections discuss
count(distinct f1) yields the number of distinct non-null values of f1. the remaining options.
</para> </para>
</sect2>
<sect2> <sect2>
<title>Target List</title> <title>Column References</title>
<para> <para>
A <firstterm>target list</firstterm> A column can be referenced in the form:
is a comma-separated list of one or more elements, each <synopsis>
of which must be of the form: <replaceable>corelation</replaceable>.<replaceable>columnname</replaceable> `['<replaceable>subscript</replaceable>`]'
</synopsis>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> [ AS <replaceable>result_attname</replaceable> ]
</synopsis>
where <replaceable>result_attname</replaceable> <replaceable>corelation</replaceable> is either the name of a
is the name to be assigned to the created column. If table, an alias for a table defined by means of a FROM clause, or
<replaceable>result_attname</replaceable> the keyword <literal>NEW</literal> or <literal>OLD</literal>.
is not present, then <productname>Postgres</productname> selects a (NEW and OLD can only appear in the action portion of a rule,
default name based on the contents of <replaceable>expression</replaceable>. while other corelation names can be used in any SQL statement.)
If <replaceable>expression</replaceable> is a simple attribute reference The corelation name can be omitted if the column name is unique
then the default name will be the same as that attribute's name, but across all the tables being used in the current query. If
otherwise the implementation is free to assign any default name. <replaceable>column</replaceable> is of an array type, then the
optional <replaceable>subscript</replaceable> selects a specific
element in the array. If no subscript is provided, then the whole
array is selected. Refer to the description of the particular
commands in the <citetitle>PostgreSQL Reference Manual</citetitle>
for the allowed syntax in each case.
</para> </para>
</sect2> </sect2>
<sect2> <sect2>
<title>Qualification</title> <title>Positional Parameters</title>
<para> <para>
A <firstterm>qualification</firstterm> A positional parameter reference is used to indicate a parameter
consists of any number of clauses connected by the logical operators: in an SQL function. Typically this is used in SQL function
definition statements. The form of a parameter is:
<synopsis>
$<replaceable>number</replaceable>
</synopsis>
</para>
<simplelist> <para>
<member>NOT</member> For example, consider the definition of a function,
<member>AND</member> <function>dept</function>, as
<member>OR</member>
</simplelist> <programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION dept (text) RETURNS dept
AS 'select * from dept where name = $1'
LANGUAGE 'sql';
</programlisting>
A clause is an <replaceable>expression</replaceable> Here the <literal>$1</literal> will be replaced by the first
that evaluates to a <literal>boolean</literal> over a set of instances. function argument when the function is invoked.
</para> </para>
</sect2> </sect2>
<sect2> <sect2>
<title>From List</title> <title>Function Calls</title>
<para> <para>
The <firstterm>from list</firstterm> The syntax for a function call is the name of a legal function
is a comma-separated list of <firstterm>from-expressions</firstterm>. (subject to the syntax rules for identifiers of <xref
The simplest possibility for a from-expression is: linkend="sql-syntax-identifiers"> , followed by its argument list
enclosed in parentheses:
<synopsis>
<replaceable>table_reference</replaceable> [ [ AS ] <replaceable class="PARAMETER">alias</replaceable> ]
</synopsis>
where <replaceable>table_reference</replaceable> is of the form <synopsis>
<replaceable>function</replaceable> (<optional><replaceable>expression</replaceable> <optional>, <replaceable>expression</replaceable> ... </optional></optional> )
</synopsis>
</para>
<synopsis> <para>
[ ONLY ] <replaceable class="PARAMETER">table_name</replaceable> [ * ] For example, the following computes the square root of 2:
</synopsis> <programlisting>
sqrt(2)
</programlisting>
</para>
The from-expression defines an instance variable that ranges over the <para>
rows of the specified table. The instance variable's name is either The list of built-in functions is in <xref linkend="functions">.
the table name, or the <replaceable>alias</replaceable> if one is given. Other functions may be added by the user.
Ordinarily, if the table has child tables then the instance variable
will range over all rows in the inheritance hierarchy starting with
the specified table. If <literal>ONLY</literal> is specified then
child tables are not included. A trailing asterisk <literal>*</literal>
can be written to specifically indicate that child tables are included
(<literal>ONLY</literal> and <literal>*</literal> are mutually
exclusive).
</para> </para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="syntax-aggregates">
<title>Aggregate Expressions</title>
<para> <para>
A from-expression can also be a sub-query: An <firstterm>aggregate expression</firstterm> represents the
application of an aggregate function across the rows selected by a
query. An aggregate function reduces multiple inputs to a single
output value, such as the sum or average of the inputs. The
syntax of an aggregate expression is one of the following:
<synopsis> <simplelist>
( <replaceable class="PARAMETER">select-statement</replaceable> ) [ AS ] <replaceable class="PARAMETER">alias</replaceable> <member><replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> (<replaceable>expression</replaceable>)</member>
</synopsis> <member><replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> (ALL <replaceable>expression</replaceable>)</member>
<member><replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> (DISTINCT <replaceable>expression</replaceable>)</member>
<member><replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> ( * )</member>
</simplelist>
Here, the effect is as though the SELECT were executed and its results where <replaceable>aggregate_name</replaceable> is a previously
stored in a temporary table, which then becomes available as an instance defined aggregate, and <replaceable>expression</replaceable> is
variable under the given <replaceable>alias</replaceable>. any expression that does not itself contain an aggregate
expression.
</para> </para>
<para> <para>
Finally, a from-expression can be built up from simpler from-expressions The first form of aggregate expression invokes the aggregate
using JOIN clauses: across all input rows for which the given expression yields a
non-NULL value. The second form is the same as the first, since
<literal>ALL</literal> is the default. The third form invokes the
aggregate for all distinct non-NULL values of the expression found
in the input rows. The last form invokes the aggregate once for
each input row regardless of NULL or non-NULL values; since no
particular input value is specified, it is generally only useful
for the <function>count()</function> aggregate function.
</para>
<synopsis> <para>
<replaceable class="PARAMETER">from_expression</replaceable> [ NATURAL ] <replaceable class="PARAMETER">join_type</replaceable> <replaceable class="PARAMETER">from_expression</replaceable> For example, <literal>count(*)</literal> yields the total number
[ ON <replaceable class="PARAMETER">join_condition</replaceable> | USING ( <replaceable class="PARAMETER">join_column_list</replaceable> ) ] of input rows; <literal>count(f1)</literal> yields the number of
</synopsis> input rows in which <literal>f1</literal> is non-NULL;
<literal>count(distinct f1)</literal> yields the number of
distinct non-NULL values of <literal>f1</literal>.
</para>
This syntax allows specification of <firstterm>outer joins</firstterm>. <para>
For details see the reference page for SELECT. The predefined aggregate functions are described in <xref
linkend="functions-aggregate">.
</para> </para>
</sect2> </sect2>
</sect1>
<sect2 id="sql-precedence">
<sect1 id="sql-precedence">
<title>Lexical Precedence</title> <title>Lexical Precedence</title>
<para> <para>
...@@ -919,7 +912,7 @@ SELECT (5 &amp;) ~ 6; ...@@ -919,7 +912,7 @@ SELECT (5 &amp;) ~ 6;
</para> </para>
<table tocentry="1"> <table tocentry="1">
<title>Operator Ordering (decreasing precedence)</title> <title>Operator Precedence (decreasing)</title>
<tgroup cols="2"> <tgroup cols="2">
<thead> <thead>
...@@ -1062,10 +1055,529 @@ SELECT (5 &amp;) ~ 6; ...@@ -1062,10 +1055,529 @@ SELECT (5 &amp;) ~ 6;
the same precedence as the built-in <quote>+</quote> operator, no the same precedence as the built-in <quote>+</quote> operator, no
matter what yours does. matter what yours does.
</para> </para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="sql-table-expressions">
<title>Table Expressions</title>
<para>
A <firstterm>table expression</firstterm> specifies a table. The
table expression contains a FROM clause that is optionally followed
by WHERE, GROUP BY, and HAVING clauses. Trivial table expressions
simply refer to a table on disk, a so-called base table, but more
complex expressions can be used to modify or combine base tables in
various ways.
</para>
<para>
The general syntax of the <command>SELECT</command> command is
<synopsis>
SELECT <replaceable>select_list</replaceable> <replaceable>table_expression</replaceable>
</synopsis>
The <replaceable>select_list</replaceable> is a comma separated
list of <replaceable>value expressions</replaceable> as defined in
<xref linkend="sql-expressions"> that specify the derived columns
of the query output table. Column names in the derived table that
is the result of the <replaceable>table_expression</replaceable>
can be used in the <replaceable>value expression</replaceable>s of
the <replaceable>select_list</replaceable>.
</para>
<para>
The WHERE, GROUP BY, and HAVING clauses in the table expression
specify a pipeline of successive transformations performed on the
table derived in the FROM clause. The final transformed table that
is derived provides the input rows used to derive output rows as
specified by the select list of derived column value expressions.
</para>
<sect2>
<title>FROM clause</title>
<para>
The FROM clause derives a table from one or more other tables
given in a comma-separated table reference list.
<synopsis>
FROM <replaceable>table_reference</replaceable> <optional>, <replaceable>table_reference</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional></optional>
</synopsis>
A table reference may be a table name or a derived table such as a
subquery, a table join, or complex combinations of these. If more
than one table reference is listed in the FROM clause they are
CROSS JOINed (see below) to form the derived table that may then
be subject to transformations by the WHERE, GROUP BY, and HAVING
clauses and is finally the result of the overall table expression.
</para>
<para>
If a table reference is a simple table name and it is the
supertable in a table inheritance hierarchy, rows of the table
include rows from all of its subtable successors unless the
keyword ONLY precedes the table name.
</para>
<sect3>
<title>Joined Tables</title>
<para>
A joined table is a table derived from two other (real or
derived) tables according to the rules of the particular join
type. INNER, OUTER, NATURAL, and CROSS JOIN are supported.
</para>
<variablelist>
<title>Join Types</title>
<varlistentry>
<term>CROSS JOIN</term>
<listitem>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>T1</replaceable> CROSS JOIN <replaceable>T2</replaceable>
</synopsis>
<para>
For each combination of rows from
<replaceable>T1</replaceable> and
<replaceable>T2</replaceable> the derived table will contain a
row consisting of all columns in <replaceable>T1</replaceable>
followed by all columns in <replaceable>T2</replaceable>. If
the tables have have N and M rows respectively, the joined
table will have N * M rows. A cross join is essentially an
<literal>INNER JOIN ON TRUE</literal>.
</para>
<tip>
<para>
<literal>FROM <replaceable>T1</replaceable> CROSS JOIN
<replaceable>T2</replaceable></literal> is equivalent to
<literal>FROM <replaceable>T1</replaceable>,
<replaceable>T2</replaceable></literal>.
</para>
</tip>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>Qualified JOINs</term>
<listitem>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>T1</replaceable> { <optional>INNER</optional> | { LEFT | RIGHT | FULL } <optional>OUTER</optional> } JOIN <replaceable>T2</replaceable> ON <replaceable>boolean expression</replaceable>
<replaceable>T1</replaceable> { <optional>INNER</optional> | { LEFT | RIGHT | FULL } <optional>OUTER</optional> } JOIN <replaceable>T2</replaceable> USING ( <replaceable>join column list</replaceable> )
</synopsis>
<para>
The words <token>INNER</token> and <token>OUTER</token> are
optional for all JOINs. <token>INNER</token> is the default;
<token>LEFT</token>, <token>RIGHT</token>, and
<token>FULL</token> are for OUTER JOINs only.
</para>
<para>
The <firstterm>join condition</firstterm> is specified in the
ON or USING clause. (The meaning of the join condition
depends on the particular join type; see below.) The ON
clause takes a boolean value expression of the same kind as is
used in a WHERE clause. The USING clause takes a
comma-separated list of column names, which the joined tables
must have in common, and joins the tables on the equality of
those columns as a set, resulting in a joined table having one
column for each common column listed and all of the other
columns from both tables. Thus, <literal>USING (a, b,
c)</literal> is equivalent to <literal>ON (t1.a = t2.a AND
t1.b = t2.b AND t1.c = t2.c)</literal> with the exception that
if ON is used there will be two columns a, b, and c in the
result, whereas with USING there will be only one of each.
</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>INNER JOIN</term>
<listitem>
<para>
For each row R1 of T1, the joined table has a row for each
row in T2 that satisfies the join condition with R1.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>LEFT OUTER JOIN</term>
<listitem>
<para>
First, an INNER JOIN is performed. Then, for a row in T1
that does not satisfy the join condition with any row in
T2, a joined row is returned with NULL values in columns of
T2. Thus, the joined table unconditionally has a row for each
row in T1.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>RIGHT OUTER JOIN</term>
<listitem>
<para>
This is like a left join, only that the result table will
unconditionally have a row for each row in T2.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>FULL OUTER JOIN</term>
<listitem>
<para>
First, an INNER JOIN is performed. Then, for each row in
T1 that does not satisfy the join condition with any row in
T2, a joined row is returned with null values in columns of
T2. Also, for each row of T2 that does not satisfy the
join condition with any row in T1, a joined row with null
values in the columns of T1 is returned.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>NATURAL JOIN</term>
<listitem>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>T1</replaceable> NATURAL { <optional>INNER</optional> | { LEFT | RIGHT | FULL } <optional>OUTER</optional> JOIN <replaceable>T2</replaceable>
</synopsis>
<para>
A natural join creates a joined table where every pair of matching
column names between the two tables are merged into one column. The
join specification is effectively a USING clause containing all the
common column names and is otherwise like a Qualified JOIN.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>
Joins of all types can be chained together or nested where either
or both of <replaceable>T1</replaceable> and
<replaceable>T2</replaceable> may be JOINed tables. Parenthesis
can be used around JOIN clauses to control the join order which
are otherwise left to right.
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3 id="sql-subqueries">
<title>Subqueries</title>
<para>
Subqueries specifying a derived table must be enclosed in
parenthesis and <emphasis>must</emphasis> be named using an AS
clause. (See <xref linkend="sql-table-aliases">.)
</para>
<programlisting>
FROM (SELECT * FROM table1) AS alias_name
</programlisting>
<para>
This example is equivalent to <literal>FROM table1 AS
alias_name</literal>. Many subquieries can be written as table
joins instead.
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3 id="sql-table-aliases">
<title>Table and Column Aliases</title>
<para>
A temporary name can be given to tables and complex table
references to be used for references to the derived table in
further processing. This is called a <firstterm>table
alias</firstterm>.
<synopsis>
FROM <replaceable>table_reference</replaceable> AS <replaceable>alias</replaceable>
</synopsis>
Here, <replaceable>alias</replaceable> can be any regular
identifier. The alias becomes the new name of the table
reference for the current query -- it is no longer possible to
refer to the table by the original name (if the table reference
was an ordinary base table). Thus
<programlisting>
SELECT * FROM my_table AS m WHERE my_table.a > 5;
</programlisting>
is not valid SQL syntax. What will happen instead, as a
<productname>Postgres</productname> extension, is that an implict
table reference is added to the FROM clause, so the query is
processed as if it was written as
<programlisting>
SELECT * FROM my_table AS m, my_table WHERE my_table.a > 5;
</programlisting>
Table aliases are mainly for notational convenience, but it is
necessary to use them when joining a table to itself, e.g.,
<programlisting>
SELECT * FROM my_table AS a CROSS JOIN my_table AS b ...
</programlisting>
Additionally, an alias is required if the table reference is a
subquery.
</para>
<para>
Parenthesis are used to resolve ambiguities. The following
statement will assign the alias <literal>b</literal> to the
result of the join, unlike the previous example:
<programlisting>
SELECT * FROM (my_table AS a CROSS JOIN my_table) AS b ...
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
<synopsis>
FROM <replaceable>table_reference</replaceable> <replaceable>alias</replaceable>
</synopsis>
This form is equivalent the previously treated one; the
<token>AS</token> key word is noise.
</para>
<para>
<synopsis>
FROM <replaceable>table_reference</replaceable> <optional>AS</optional> <replaceable>alias</replaceable> ( <replaceable>column1</replaceable> <optional>, <replaceable>column2</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional></optional> )
</synopsis>
In addition to renaming the table as described above, the columns
of the table are also given temporary names. If less column
aliases are specified than the actual table has columns, the last
columns are not renamed. This syntax is especially useful for
self-joins or subqueries.
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3>
<title>Examples</title>
<para>
<programlisting>
FROM T1 INNER JOIN T2 USING (C)
FROM T1 LEFT OUTER JOIN T2 USING (C)
FROM (T1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN T2 ON (T1C1=T2C1)) AS DT1
FROM (T1 FULL OUTER JOIN T2 USING (C)) AS DT1 (DT1C1, DT1C2)
FROM T1 NATURAL INNER JOIN T2
FROM T1 NATURAL LEFT OUTER JOIN T2
FROM T1 NATURAL RIGHT OUTER JOIN T2
FROM T1 NATURAL FULL OUTER JOIN T2
FROM (SELECT * FROM T1) DT1 CROSS JOIN T2, T3
FROM (SELECT * FROM T1) DT1, T2, T3
</programlisting>
Above are some examples of joined tables and complex derived
tables. Notice how the AS clause renames or names a derived
table and how the optional comma-separated list of column names
that follows gives names or renames the columns. The last two
FROM clauses produce the same derived table from T1, T2, and T3.
The AS keyword was omitted in naming the subquery as DT1. The
keywords OUTER and INNER are noise that can be omitted also.
</para>
</sect3>
</sect2> </sect2>
<sect2>
<title>WHERE clause</title>
<para>
The syntax of the WHERE clause is
<synopsis>
WHERE <replaceable>search condition</replaceable>
</synopsis>
where <replaceable>search condition</replaceable> is any value
expression as defined in <xref linkend="sql-expressions"> that
returns a value of type <type>boolean</type>.
</para>
<para>
After the processing of the FROM clause is done, each row of the
derived table is checked against the search condition. If the
result of the condition is true, the row is kept in the output
table, otherwise (that is, if the result is false or NULL) it is
discared. The search condition typically references at least some
column in the table generated in the FROM clause; this is not
required, but otherwise the WHERE clause will be fairly useless.
</para>
<note>
<para>
Before the implementation of the JOIN syntax, it was necessary to
put the join condition of an inner join in the WHERE clause. For
example, these table expressions are equivalent:
<programlisting>
FROM a, b WHERE a.id = b.id AND b.val &gt; 5
</programlisting>
and
<programlisting>
FROM a INNER JOIN b ON (a.id = b.id) WHERE b.val &gt; 5
</programlisting>
or perhaps even
<programlisting>
FROM a NATURAL JOIN b WHERE b.val &gt; 5
</programlisting>
Which one of these you use is mainly a matter of style. The JOIN
syntax in the FROM clause is probably not as portable to other
products. For outer joins there is no choice in any case: they
must be done in the FROM clause.
</para>
</note>
<programlisting>
FROM FDT WHERE
C1 > 5
FROM FDT WHERE
C1 IN (1, 2, 3)
FROM FDT WHERE
C1 IN (SELECT C1 FROM T2)
FROM FDT WHERE
C1 IN (SELECT C3 FROM T2 WHERE C2 = FDT.C1 + 10)
FROM FDT WHERE
C1 BETWEEN (SELECT C3 FROM T2 WHERE C2 = FDT.C1 + 10) AND 100
FROM FDT WHERE
EXISTS (SELECT C1 FROM T2 WHERE C2 > FDT.C1)
</programlisting>
<para>
In the examples above, FDT is the table derived in the FROM
clause. Rows that do not meet the search condition of the where
clause are eliminated from FDT. Notice the use of scalar
subqueries as value expressions (C2 assumed UNIQUE). Just like
any other query, the subqueries can employ complex table
expressions. Notice how FDT is referenced in the subqueries.
Qualifying C1 as FDT.C1 is only necessary if C1 is the name of a
column in the derived input table of the subquery. Qualifying the
column name adds clarity even when it is not needed. The column
naming scope of an outer query extends into its inner queries.
</para>
</sect2>
<!-- This is confusing as heck. Make it simpler. -->
<![IGNORE[
<sect2>
<title>GROUP BY and HAVING clauses</title>
<para>
After passing the WHERE filter, the derived input table may be
subject to grouping, using the GROUP BY clause, and elimination of
group rows using the HAVING clause. (The HAVING clause can also
be used without GROUP BY, but then it is equivalent to the WHERE
clause.)
</para>
<para>
In standard SQL, the GROUP BY clause takes a list of column names,
that specify a subrow, from the derived input table produced by
the previous WHERE or FROM clause and partitions the table into
groups with duplicate subrows such that within a column of the
subrow, no column value is distinct from other column values. The
resulting derived input table is a special type of table, called a
grouped table, which still contains all columns but only
references to columns of the grouped subrow, and group aggregates,
derived from any of the columns, may appear in derived column
value expressions in the query select list. When deriving an
output table from a query using a grouped input table, each output
row is derived from a corresponding group/partition of the grouped
table. Aggregates computed in a derived output column are
aggregates on the current partition/group of the grouped input
table being processed. Only one output table row results per
group/partition of the grouped input table.
</para>
<para>
Postgres has extended the GROUP BY clause to allow some
non-standard, but useful behavior. Derived output columns, given
names using an AS clause in the query select list, may appear in
the GROUP BY clause in combination with, or instead of, the input
table column names. Tables may also be grouped by arbitrary
expressions. If output table column names appear in the GROUP BY
list, then the input table is augmented with additional columns of
the output table columns listed in the GROUP BY clause. The value
for each row in the additional columns is computed from the value
expression that defines the output column in the query select
list. The augmented input table is grouped by the column names
listed in the GROUP BY clause. The resulting grouped augmented
input table is then treated according standard SQL GROUP BY
semantics. Only the columns of the unaugmented input table in the
grouped subrow (if any), and group aggregates, derived from any of
the columns of the unaugmented input table, may be referenced in
the value expressions of the derived output columns of the
query. Output columns derived with an aggregate expression cannot
be named in the GROUP BY clause.
</para>
<para>
A HAVING clause may optionally follow a GROUP BY clause. The
HAVING clause selects or eliminates, depending on which
perspective is taken, groups from the grouped table derived in the
GROUP BY clause that precedes it. The search condition is the
same type of expression allowed in a WHERE clause and may
reference any of the input table column names in the grouped
subrow, but may not reference any others or any named output
columns. When the search condition results in TRUE the group is
retained, otherwise the group is eliminated.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>ORDER BY and LIMIT clauses</title>
<para>
ORDER BY and LIMIT clauses are not clauses of a table expression.
They are optional clauses that may follow a query expression and
are discussed here because they are commonly used with the
clauses above.
</para>
<para>
ORDER BY takes a comma-separated list of columns and performs a
cascaded ordering of the table by the columns listed, in the
order listed. The keyword DESC or ASC may follow any column name
or expression in the list to specify descending or ascending
ordering, respectively. Ascending order is the default. The
ORDER BY clause conforms to the SQL standard but is extended in
Postgres. Postgres allows ORDER BY to reference both output
table columns, as named in the select list using the AS clause,
and input table columns, as given by the table derived in the
FROM clause and other previous clauses. Postgres also extends
ORDER BY to allow ordering by arbitrary expressions. If used in a
query with a GROUP BY clause, the ORDER BY clause can only
reference output table column names and grouped input table
columns.
</para>
<para>
LIMIT is not a standard SQL clause. LIMIT is a Postgres
extension that limits the number of rows that will be returned
from a query. The rows returned by a query using the LIMIT
clause are random if no ORDER BY clause is specified. A LIMIT
clause may optionally be followed by an OFFSET clause which
specifies a number of rows to be skipped in the output table
before returning the number of rows specified in the LIMIT
clause.
</para>
</sect2>
]]>
</sect1> </sect1>
</chapter>
</chapter>
<!-- Keep this comment at the end of the file <!-- Keep this comment at the end of the file
Local variables: Local variables:
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