<!-- doc/src/sgml/ref/pgbench.sgml -->

<refentry id="pgbench">
 <indexterm zone="pgbench">
  <primary>pgbench</primary>
 </indexterm>

 <refmeta>
  <refentrytitle><application>pgbench</application></refentrytitle>
  <manvolnum>1</manvolnum>
  <refmiscinfo>Application</refmiscinfo>
 </refmeta>

 <refnamediv>
  <refname>pgbench</refname>
  <refpurpose>run a benchmark test on <productname>PostgreSQL</productname></refpurpose>
 </refnamediv>

 <refsynopsisdiv>
  <cmdsynopsis>
   <command>pgbench</command>
   <arg choice="plain"><option>-i</option></arg>
   <arg rep="repeat"><replaceable>option</replaceable></arg>
   <arg choice="opt"><replaceable>dbname</replaceable></arg>
  </cmdsynopsis>
  <cmdsynopsis>
   <command>pgbench</command>
   <arg rep="repeat"><replaceable>option</replaceable></arg>
   <arg choice="opt"><replaceable>dbname</replaceable></arg>
  </cmdsynopsis>
 </refsynopsisdiv>

 <refsect1>
  <title>Description</title>
 <para>
  <application>pgbench</application> is a simple program for running benchmark
  tests on <productname>PostgreSQL</>.  It runs the same sequence of SQL
  commands over and over, possibly in multiple concurrent database sessions,
  and then calculates the average transaction rate (transactions per second).
  By default, <application>pgbench</application> tests a scenario that is
  loosely based on TPC-B, involving five <command>SELECT</>,
  <command>UPDATE</>, and <command>INSERT</> commands per transaction.
  However, it is easy to test other cases by writing your own transaction
  script files.
 </para>

 <para>
  Typical output from <application>pgbench</application> looks like:

<screen>
transaction type: TPC-B (sort of)
scaling factor: 10
query mode: simple
number of clients: 10
number of threads: 1
number of transactions per client: 1000
number of transactions actually processed: 10000/10000
tps = 85.184871 (including connections establishing)
tps = 85.296346 (excluding connections establishing)
</screen>

  The first six lines report some of the most important parameter
  settings.  The next line reports the number of transactions completed
  and intended (the latter being just the product of number of clients
  and number of transactions per client); these will be equal unless the run
  failed before completion.  (In <option>-T</> mode, only the actual
  number of transactions is printed.)
  The last two lines report the number of transactions per second,
  figured with and without counting the time to start database sessions.
 </para>

  <para>
   The default TPC-B-like transaction test requires specific tables to be
   set up beforehand.  <application>pgbench</> should be invoked with
   the <option>-i</> (initialize) option to create and populate these
   tables.  (When you are testing a custom script, you don't need this
   step, but will instead need to do whatever setup your test needs.)
   Initialization looks like:

<programlisting>
pgbench -i <optional> <replaceable>other-options</> </optional> <replaceable>dbname</>
</programlisting>

   where <replaceable>dbname</> is the name of the already-created
   database to test in.  (You may also need <option>-h</>,
   <option>-p</>, and/or <option>-U</> options to specify how to
   connect to the database server.)
  </para>

  <caution>
   <para>
    <literal>pgbench -i</> creates four tables <structname>pgbench_accounts</>,
    <structname>pgbench_branches</>, <structname>pgbench_history</>, and
    <structname>pgbench_tellers</>,
    destroying any existing tables of these names.
    Be very careful to use another database if you have tables having these
    names!
   </para>
  </caution>

  <para>
   At the default <quote>scale factor</> of 1, the tables initially
   contain this many rows:
<screen>
table                   # of rows
---------------------------------
pgbench_branches        1
pgbench_tellers         10
pgbench_accounts        100000
pgbench_history         0
</screen>
   You can (and, for most purposes, probably should) increase the number
   of rows by using the <option>-s</> (scale factor) option.  The
   <option>-F</> (fillfactor) option might also be used at this point.
  </para>

  <para>
   Once you have done the necessary setup, you can run your benchmark
   with a command that doesn't include <option>-i</>, that is

<programlisting>
pgbench <optional> <replaceable>options</> </optional> <replaceable>dbname</>
</programlisting>

   In nearly all cases, you'll need some options to make a useful test.
   The most important options are <option>-c</> (number of clients),
   <option>-t</> (number of transactions), <option>-T</> (time limit),
   and <option>-f</> (specify a custom script file).
   See below for a full list.
  </para>
 </refsect1>

 <refsect1>
  <title>Options</title>

  <para>
   The following is divided into three subsections: Different options are used
   during database initialization and while running benchmarks, some options
   are useful in both cases.
  </para>

 <refsect2 id="pgbench-init-options">
  <title>Initialization Options</title>

   <para>
    <application>pgbench</application> accepts the following command-line
    initialization arguments:

    <variablelist>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-i</option></term>
      <term><option>--initialize</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Required to invoke initialization mode.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-F</option> <replaceable>fillfactor</></term>
      <term><option>--fillfactor=</option><replaceable>fillfactor</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Create the <structname>pgbench_accounts</>,
        <structname>pgbench_tellers</> and
        <structname>pgbench_branches</> tables with the given fillfactor.
        Default is 100.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-n</option></term>
      <term><option>--no-vacuum</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Perform no vacuuming after initialization.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-q</option></term>
      <term><option>--quiet</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Switch logging to quiet mode, producing only one progress message per 5
        seconds. The default logging prints one message each 100000 rows, which
        often outputs many lines per second (especially on good hardware).
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-s</option> <replaceable>scale_factor</></term>
      <term><option>--scale=</option><replaceable>scale_factor</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Multiply the number of rows generated by the scale factor.
        For example, <literal>-s 100</> will create 10,000,000 rows
        in the <structname>pgbench_accounts</> table. Default is 1.
        When the scale is 20,000 or larger, the columns used to
        hold account identifiers (<structfield>aid</structfield> columns)
        will switch to using larger integers (<type>bigint</type>),
        in order to be big enough to hold the range of account
        identifiers.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>--foreign-keys</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Create foreign key constraints between the standard tables.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>--index-tablespace=<replaceable>index_tablespace</replaceable></option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Create indexes in the specified tablespace, rather than the default
        tablespace.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>--tablespace=<replaceable>tablespace</replaceable></option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Create tables in the specified tablespace, rather than the default
        tablespace.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>--unlogged-tables</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Create all tables as unlogged tables, rather than permanent tables.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

    </variablelist>
   </para>

 </refsect2>

 <refsect2 id="pgbench-run-options">
  <title>Benchmarking Options</title>

   <para>
    <application>pgbench</application> accepts the following command-line
    benchmarking arguments:

    <variablelist>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-c</option> <replaceable>clients</></term>
      <term><option>--client=</option><replaceable>clients</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Number of clients simulated, that is, number of concurrent database
        sessions.  Default is 1.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-C</option></term>
      <term><option>--connect</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Establish a new connection for each transaction, rather than
        doing it just once per client session.
        This is useful to measure the connection overhead.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-d</option></term>
      <term><option>--debug</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Print debugging output.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-D</option> <replaceable>varname</><literal>=</><replaceable>value</></term>
      <term><option>--define=</option><replaceable>varname</><literal>=</><replaceable>value</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Define a variable for use by a custom script (see below).
        Multiple <option>-D</> options are allowed.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-f</option> <replaceable>filename</></term>
      <term><option>--file=</option><replaceable>filename</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Read transaction script from <replaceable>filename</>.
        See below for details.
        <option>-N</option>, <option>-S</option>, and <option>-f</option>
        are mutually exclusive.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-j</option> <replaceable>threads</></term>
      <term><option>--jobs=</option><replaceable>threads</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Number of worker threads within <application>pgbench</application>.
        Using more than one thread can be helpful on multi-CPU machines.
        Clients are distributed as evenly as possible among available threads.
        Default is 1.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-l</option></term>
      <term><option>--log</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Write the time taken by each transaction to a log file.
        See below for details.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-L</option> <replaceable>limit</></term>
      <term><option>--latency-limit=</option><replaceable>limit</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Transaction which last more than <replaceable>limit</> milliseconds
        are counted and reported separately, as <firstterm>late</>.
       </para>
       <para>
        When throttling is used (<option>--rate=...</>), transactions that
        lag behind schedule by more than <replaceable>limit</> ms, and thus
        have no hope of meeting the latency limit, are not sent to the server
        at all. They are counted and reported separately as
        <firstterm>skipped</>.
       </para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-M</option> <replaceable>querymode</></term>
      <term><option>--protocol=</option><replaceable>querymode</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Protocol to use for submitting queries to the server:
          <itemizedlist>
           <listitem>
            <para><literal>simple</>: use simple query protocol.</para>
           </listitem>
           <listitem>
            <para><literal>extended</>: use extended query protocol.</para>
           </listitem>
           <listitem>
            <para><literal>prepared</>: use extended query protocol with prepared statements.</para>
           </listitem>
          </itemizedlist>
        The default is simple query protocol.  (See <xref linkend="protocol">
        for more information.)
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-n</option></term>
      <term><option>--no-vacuum</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Perform no vacuuming before running the test.
        This option is <emphasis>necessary</>
        if you are running a custom test scenario that does not include
        the standard tables <structname>pgbench_accounts</>,
        <structname>pgbench_branches</>, <structname>pgbench_history</>, and
        <structname>pgbench_tellers</>.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-N</option></term>
      <term><option>--skip-some-updates</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Do not update <structname>pgbench_tellers</> and
        <structname>pgbench_branches</>.
        This will avoid update contention on these tables, but
        it makes the test case even less like TPC-B.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-P</option> <replaceable>sec</></term>
      <term><option>--progress=</option><replaceable>sec</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Show progress report every <literal>sec</> seconds.  The report
        includes the time since the beginning of the run, the tps since the
        last report, and the transaction latency average and standard
        deviation since the last report.  Under throttling (<option>-R</>),
        the latency is computed with respect to the transaction scheduled
        start time, not the actual transaction beginning time, thus it also
        includes the average schedule lag time.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>--progress-timestamp</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        When showing progress (option <option>-P</>), use a timestamp
        (Unix epoch) instead of the number of seconds since the
        beginning of the run.  The unit is in seconds, with millisecond
        precision after the dot.
        This helps compare logs generated by various tools.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-r</option></term>
      <term><option>--report-latencies</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Report the average per-statement latency (execution time from the
        perspective of the client) of each command after the benchmark
        finishes.  See below for details.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-R</option> <replaceable>rate</></term>
      <term><option>--rate=</option><replaceable>rate</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Execute transactions targeting the specified rate instead of running
        as fast as possible (the default).  The rate is given in transactions
        per second.  If the targeted rate is above the maximum possible rate,
        the rate limit won't impact the results.
       </para>
       <para>
        The rate is targeted by starting transactions along a
        Poisson-distributed schedule time line.  The expected start time
        schedule moves forward based on when the client first started, not
        when the previous transaction ended.  That approach means that when
        transactions go past their original scheduled end time, it is
        possible for later ones to catch up again.
       </para>
       <para>
        When throttling is active, the transaction latency reported at the
        end of the run is calculated from the scheduled start times, so it
        includes the time each transaction had to wait for the previous
        transaction to finish. The wait time is called the schedule lag time,
        and its average and maximum are also reported separately. The
        transaction latency with respect to the actual transaction start time,
        i.e. the time spent executing the transaction in the database, can be
        computed by subtracting the schedule lag time from the reported
        latency.
       </para>

       <para>
        If <option>--latency-limit</> is used together with <option>--rate</>,
        a transaction can lag behind so much that it is already over the
        latency limit when the previous transaction ends, because the latency
        is calculated from the scheduled start time. Such transactions are
        not sent to the server, but are skipped altogether and counted
        separately.
       </para>

       <para>
        A high schedule lag time is an indication that the system cannot
        process transactions at the specified rate, with the chosen number of
        clients and threads. When the average transaction execution time is
        longer than the scheduled interval between each transaction, each
        successive transaction will fall further behind, and the schedule lag
        time will keep increasing the longer the test run is. When that
        happens, you will have to reduce the specified transaction rate.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-s</option> <replaceable>scale_factor</></term>
      <term><option>--scale=</option><replaceable>scale_factor</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Report the specified scale factor in <application>pgbench</>'s
        output.  With the built-in tests, this is not necessary; the
        correct scale factor will be detected by counting the number of
        rows in the <structname>pgbench_branches</> table.  However, when testing
        custom benchmarks (<option>-f</> option), the scale factor
        will be reported as 1 unless this option is used.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-S</option></term>
      <term><option>--select-only</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Perform select-only transactions instead of TPC-B-like test.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-t</option> <replaceable>transactions</></term>
      <term><option>--transactions=</option><replaceable>transactions</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Number of transactions each client runs.  Default is 10.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-T</option> <replaceable>seconds</></term>
      <term><option>--time=</option><replaceable>seconds</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Run the test for this many seconds, rather than a fixed number of
        transactions per client. <option>-t</option> and
        <option>-T</option> are mutually exclusive.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-v</option></term>
      <term><option>--vacuum-all</option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Vacuum all four standard tables before running the test.
        With neither <option>-n</> nor <option>-v</>, <application>pgbench</application> will vacuum the
        <structname>pgbench_tellers</> and <structname>pgbench_branches</>
        tables, and will truncate <structname>pgbench_history</>.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>--aggregate-interval=<replaceable>seconds</></option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Length of aggregation interval (in seconds). May be used only together
        with <application>-l</application> - with this option, the log contains
        per-interval summary (number of transactions, min/max latency and two
        additional fields useful for variance estimation).
       </para>
       <para>
        This option is not currently supported on Windows.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>--sampling-rate=<replaceable>rate</></option></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Sampling rate, used when writing data into the log, to reduce the
        amount of log generated. If this option is given, only the specified
        fraction of transactions are logged. 1.0 means all transactions will
        be logged, 0.05 means only 5% of the transactions will be logged.
       </para>
       <para>
        Remember to take the sampling rate into account when processing the
        log file. For example, when computing tps values, you need to multiply
        the numbers accordingly (e.g. with 0.01 sample rate, you'll only get
        1/100 of the actual tps).
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

    </variablelist>
   </para>

 </refsect2>

 <refsect2 id="pgbench-common-options">
  <title>Common Options</title>

   <para>
    <application>pgbench</application> accepts the following command-line
    common arguments:

    <variablelist>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-h</option> <replaceable>hostname</></term>
      <term><option>--host=</option><replaceable>hostname</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        The database server's host name
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-p</option> <replaceable>port</></term>
      <term><option>--port=</option><replaceable>port</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        The database server's port number
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-U</option> <replaceable>login</></term>
      <term><option>--username=</option><replaceable>login</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        The user name to connect as
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-V</></term>
      <term><option>--version</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Print the <application>pgbench</application> version and exit.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>

     <varlistentry>
      <term><option>-?</></term>
      <term><option>--help</></term>
      <listitem>
       <para>
        Show help about <application>pgbench</application> command line
        arguments, and exit.
       </para>
      </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
    </variablelist>
   </para>

 </refsect2>
 </refsect1>

 <refsect1>
  <title>Notes</title>

 <refsect2>
  <title>What is the <quote>Transaction</> Actually Performed in <application>pgbench</application>?</title>

  <para>
   The default transaction script issues seven commands per transaction:
  </para>

  <orderedlist>
   <listitem><para><literal>BEGIN;</literal></para></listitem>
   <listitem><para><literal>UPDATE pgbench_accounts SET abalance = abalance + :delta WHERE aid = :aid;</literal></para></listitem>
   <listitem><para><literal>SELECT abalance FROM pgbench_accounts WHERE aid = :aid;</literal></para></listitem>
   <listitem><para><literal>UPDATE pgbench_tellers SET tbalance = tbalance + :delta WHERE tid = :tid;</literal></para></listitem>
   <listitem><para><literal>UPDATE pgbench_branches SET bbalance = bbalance + :delta WHERE bid = :bid;</literal></para></listitem>
   <listitem><para><literal>INSERT INTO pgbench_history (tid, bid, aid, delta, mtime) VALUES (:tid, :bid, :aid, :delta, CURRENT_TIMESTAMP);</literal></para></listitem>
   <listitem><para><literal>END;</literal></para></listitem>
  </orderedlist>

  <para>
   If you specify <option>-N</>, steps 4 and 5 aren't included in the
   transaction.  If you specify <option>-S</>, only the <command>SELECT</> is
   issued.
  </para>
 </refsect2>

 <refsect2>
  <title>Custom Scripts</title>

  <para>
   <application>pgbench</application> has support for running custom
   benchmark scenarios by replacing the default transaction script
   (described above) with a transaction script read from a file
   (<option>-f</option> option).  In this case a <quote>transaction</>
   counts as one execution of a script file.  You can even specify
   multiple scripts (multiple <option>-f</option> options), in which
   case a random one of the scripts is chosen each time a client session
   starts a new transaction.
  </para>

  <para>
   The format of a script file is one SQL command per line; multiline
   SQL commands are not supported.  Empty lines and lines beginning with
   <literal>--</> are ignored.  Script file lines can also be
   <quote>meta commands</>, which are interpreted by <application>pgbench</>
   itself, as described below.
  </para>

  <para>
   There is a simple variable-substitution facility for script files.
   Variables can be set by the command-line <option>-D</> option,
   explained above, or by the meta commands explained below.
   In addition to any variables preset by <option>-D</> command-line options,
   there are a few variables that are preset automatically, listed in
   <xref linkend="pgbench-automatic-variables">. A value specified for these
   variables using <option>-D</> takes precedence over the automatic presets.
   Once set, a variable's
   value can be inserted into a SQL command by writing
   <literal>:</><replaceable>variablename</>.  When running more than
   one client session, each session has its own set of variables.
  </para>

   <table id="pgbench-automatic-variables">
    <title>Automatic variables</title>
    <tgroup cols="2">
     <thead>
      <row>
       <entry>Variable</entry>
       <entry>Description</entry>
      </row>
     </thead>

     <tbody>
      <row>
       <entry> <literal>scale</literal> </entry>
       <entry>current scale factor</entry>
      </row>

      <row>
       <entry> <literal>client_id</literal> </entry>
       <entry>unique number identifying the client session (starts from zero)</entry>
      </row>
     </tbody>
    </tgroup>
   </table>

  <para>
   Script file meta commands begin with a backslash (<literal>\</>).
   Arguments to a meta command are separated by white space.
   These meta commands are supported:
  </para>

  <variablelist>
   <varlistentry>
    <term>
     <literal>\set <replaceable>varname</> <replaceable>expression</></literal>
    </term>

    <listitem>
     <para>
      Sets variable <replaceable>varname</> to an integer value calculated
      from <replaceable>expression</>.
      The expression may contain integer constants such as <literal>5432</>,
      references to variables <literal>:</><replaceable>variablename</>,
      and expressions composed of unary (<literal>-</>) or binary operators
      (<literal>+</>, <literal>-</>, <literal>*</>, <literal>/</>, <literal>%</>)
      with their usual associativity, and parentheses.
     </para>

     <para>
      Examples:
<programlisting>
\set ntellers 10 * :scale
\set aid (1021 * :aid) % (100000 * :scale) + 1
</programlisting></para>
    </listitem>
   </varlistentry>

   <varlistentry>
    <term>
     <literal>\setrandom <replaceable>varname</> <replaceable>min</> <replaceable>max</> [ uniform | { gaussian | exponential } <replaceable>threshold</> ]</literal>
     </term>

    <listitem>
     <para>
      Sets variable <replaceable>varname</> to a random integer value
      between the limits <replaceable>min</> and <replaceable>max</> inclusive.
      Each limit can be either an integer constant or a
      <literal>:</><replaceable>variablename</> reference to a variable
      having an integer value.
     </para>

     <para>
      By default, or when <literal>uniform</> is specified, all values in the
      range are drawn with equal probability.  Specifying <literal>gaussian</>
      or  <literal>exponential</> options modifies this behavior; each
      requires a mandatory threshold which determines the precise shape of the
      distribution.
     </para>

     <para>
      For a Gaussian distribution, the interval is mapped onto a standard
      normal distribution (the classical bell-shaped Gaussian curve) truncated
      at <literal>-threshold</> on the left and <literal>+threshold</>
      on the right.
      To be precise, if <literal>PHI(x)</> is the cumulative distribution
      function of the standard normal distribution, with mean <literal>mu</>
      defined as <literal>(max + min) / 2.0</>, then value <replaceable>i</>
      between <replaceable>min</> and <replaceable>max</> inclusive is drawn
      with probability:
      <literal>
        (PHI(2.0 * threshold * (i - min - mu + 0.5) / (max - min + 1)) -
         PHI(2.0 * threshold * (i - min - mu - 0.5) / (max - min + 1))) /
         (2.0 * PHI(threshold) - 1.0)</>.
      Intuitively, the larger the <replaceable>threshold</>, the more
      frequently values close to the middle of the interval are drawn, and the
      less frequently values close to the <replaceable>min</> and
      <replaceable>max</> bounds.
      About 67% of values are drawn from the middle <literal>1.0 / threshold</>
      and 95% in the middle <literal>2.0 / threshold</>; for instance, if
      <replaceable>threshold</> is 4.0, 67% of values are drawn from the middle
      quarter and 95% from the middle half of the interval.
      The minimum <replaceable>threshold</> is 2.0 for performance of
      the Box-Muller transform.
     </para>

     <para>
      For an exponential distribution, the <replaceable>threshold</>
      parameter controls the distribution by truncating a quickly-decreasing
      exponential distribution at <replaceable>threshold</>, and then
      projecting onto integers between the bounds.
      To be precise, value <replaceable>i</> between <replaceable>min</> and
      <replaceable>max</> inclusive is drawn with probability:
      <literal>(exp(-threshold*(i-min)/(max+1-min)) -
       exp(-threshold*(i+1-min)/(max+1-min))) / (1.0 - exp(-threshold))</>.
      Intuitively, the larger the <replaceable>threshold</>, the more
      frequently values close to <replaceable>min</> are accessed, and the
      less frequently values close to <replaceable>max</> are accessed.
      The closer to 0 the threshold, the flatter (more uniform) the access
      distribution.
      A crude approximation of the distribution is that the most frequent 1%
      values in the range, close to <replaceable>min</>, are drawn
      <replaceable>threshold</>%  of the time.
      The <replaceable>threshold</> value must be strictly positive.
     </para>

     <para>
      Example:
<programlisting>
\setrandom aid 1 :naccounts gaussian 5.0
</programlisting></para>
    </listitem>
   </varlistentry>

   <varlistentry>
    <term>
     <literal>\sleep <replaceable>number</> [ us | ms | s ]</literal>
    </term>

    <listitem>
     <para>
      Causes script execution to sleep for the specified duration in
      microseconds (<literal>us</>), milliseconds (<literal>ms</>) or seconds
      (<literal>s</>).  If the unit is omitted then seconds are the default.
      <replaceable>number</> can be either an integer constant or a
      <literal>:</><replaceable>variablename</> reference to a variable
      having an integer value.
     </para>

     <para>
      Example:
<programlisting>
\sleep 10 ms
</programlisting></para>
    </listitem>
   </varlistentry>

   <varlistentry>
    <term>
     <literal>\setshell <replaceable>varname</> <replaceable>command</> [ <replaceable>argument</> ... ]</literal>
    </term>

    <listitem>
     <para>
      Sets variable <replaceable>varname</> to the result of the shell command
      <replaceable>command</>. The command must return an integer value
      through its standard output.
     </para>

     <para><replaceable>argument</> can be either a text constant or a
      <literal>:</><replaceable>variablename</> reference to a variable of
      any types. If you want to use <replaceable>argument</> starting with
      colons, you need to add an additional colon at the beginning of
      <replaceable>argument</>.
     </para>

     <para>
      Example:
<programlisting>
\setshell variable_to_be_assigned command literal_argument :variable ::literal_starting_with_colon
</programlisting></para>
    </listitem>
   </varlistentry>

   <varlistentry>
    <term>
     <literal>\shell <replaceable>command</> [ <replaceable>argument</> ... ]</literal>
    </term>

    <listitem>
     <para>
      Same as <literal>\setshell</literal>, but the result is ignored.
     </para>

     <para>
      Example:
<programlisting>
\shell command literal_argument :variable ::literal_starting_with_colon
</programlisting></para>
    </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
  </variablelist>

  <para>
   As an example, the full definition of the built-in TPC-B-like
   transaction is:

<programlisting>
\set nbranches :scale
\set ntellers 10 * :scale
\set naccounts 100000 * :scale
\setrandom aid 1 :naccounts
\setrandom bid 1 :nbranches
\setrandom tid 1 :ntellers
\setrandom delta -5000 5000
BEGIN;
UPDATE pgbench_accounts SET abalance = abalance + :delta WHERE aid = :aid;
SELECT abalance FROM pgbench_accounts WHERE aid = :aid;
UPDATE pgbench_tellers SET tbalance = tbalance + :delta WHERE tid = :tid;
UPDATE pgbench_branches SET bbalance = bbalance + :delta WHERE bid = :bid;
INSERT INTO pgbench_history (tid, bid, aid, delta, mtime) VALUES (:tid, :bid, :aid, :delta, CURRENT_TIMESTAMP);
END;
</programlisting>

   This script allows each iteration of the transaction to reference
   different, randomly-chosen rows.  (This example also shows why it's
   important for each client session to have its own variables &mdash;
   otherwise they'd not be independently touching different rows.)
  </para>

 </refsect2>

 <refsect2>
  <title>Per-Transaction Logging</title>

  <para>
   With the <option>-l</> option but without the <option>--aggregate-interval</option>,
   <application>pgbench</> writes the time taken by each transaction
   to a log file.  The log file will be named
   <filename>pgbench_log.<replaceable>nnn</></filename>, where
   <replaceable>nnn</> is the PID of the <application>pgbench</application> process.
   If the <option>-j</> option is 2 or higher, creating multiple worker
   threads, each will have its own log file. The first worker will use the
   same name for its log file as in the standard single worker case.
   The additional log files for the other workers will be named
   <filename>pgbench_log.<replaceable>nnn</>.<replaceable>mmm</></filename>,
   where <replaceable>mmm</> is a sequential number for each worker starting
   with 1.
  </para>

  <para>
   The format of the log is:

<synopsis>
<replaceable>client_id</> <replaceable>transaction_no</> <replaceable>time</> <replaceable>file_no</> <replaceable>time_epoch</> <replaceable>time_us</> <optional><replaceable>schedule_lag</replaceable></optional>
</synopsis>

   where <replaceable>time</> is the total elapsed transaction time in microseconds,
   <replaceable>file_no</> identifies which script file was used
   (useful when multiple scripts were specified with <option>-f</>),
   and <replaceable>time_epoch</>/<replaceable>time_us</> are a
   Unix epoch format time stamp and an offset
   in microseconds (suitable for creating an ISO 8601
   time stamp with fractional seconds) showing when
   the transaction completed.
   Field <replaceable>schedule_lag</> is the difference between the
   transaction's scheduled start time, and the time it actually started, in
   microseconds. It is only present when the <option>--rate</> option is used.
   The last field <replaceable>skipped_transactions</> reports the number of
   transactions skipped because they were too far behind schedule. It is only
   present when both options <option>--rate</> and <option>--latency-limit</>
   are used.
  </para>

  <para>
   Here is a snippet of the log file generated:
<screen>
 0 199 2241 0 1175850568 995598
 0 200 2465 0 1175850568 998079
 0 201 2513 0 1175850569 608
 0 202 2038 0 1175850569 2663
</screen>

   Another example with --rate=100 and --latency-limit=5 (note the additional
   <replaceable>schedule_lag</> column):
<screen>
 0 81 4621 0 1412881037 912698 3005
 0 82 6173 0 1412881037 914578 4304
 0 83 skipped 0 1412881037 914578 5217
 0 83 skipped 0 1412881037 914578 5099
 0 83 4722 0 1412881037 916203 3108
 0 84 4142 0 1412881037 918023 2333
 0 85 2465 0 1412881037 919759 740
</screen>
   In this example, transaction 82 was late, because it's latency (6.173 ms) was
   over the 5 ms limit. The next two transactions were skipped, because they
   were already late before they were even started.
  </para>

  <para>
   When running a long test on hardware that can handle a lot of transactions,
   the log files can become very large.  The <option>--sampling-rate</> option
   can be used to log only a random sample of transactions.
  </para>
 </refsect2>

 <refsect2>
  <title>Aggregated Logging</title>

  <para>
   With the <option>--aggregate-interval</option> option, the logs use a bit different format:

<synopsis>
<replaceable>interval_start</> <replaceable>num_of_transactions</> <replaceable>latency_sum</> <replaceable>latency_2_sum</> <replaceable>min_latency</> <replaceable>max_latency</> <optional><replaceable>lag_sum</> <replaceable>lag_2_sum</> <replaceable>min_lag</> <replaceable>max_lag</> <optional><replaceable>skipped_transactions</></optional></optional>
</synopsis>

   where <replaceable>interval_start</> is the start of the interval (Unix epoch
   format time stamp), <replaceable>num_of_transactions</> is the number of transactions
   within the interval, <replaceable>latency_sum</replaceable> is a sum of latencies
   (so you can compute average latency easily). The following two fields are useful
   for variance estimation - <replaceable>latency_sum</> is a sum of latencies and
   <replaceable>latency_2_sum</> is a sum of 2nd powers of latencies. The last two
   fields are <replaceable>min_latency</> - a minimum latency within the interval, and
   <replaceable>max_latency</> - maximum latency within the interval. A transaction is
   counted into the interval when it was committed. The fields in the end,
   <replaceable>lag_sum</>, <replaceable>lag_2_sum</>, <replaceable>min_lag</>,
   and <replaceable>max_lag</>, are only present if the <option>--rate</>
   option is used. The very last one, <replaceable>skipped_transactions</>,
   is only present if the option <option>--latency-limit</> is present, too.
   They are calculated from the time each transaction had to wait for the
   previous one to finish, i.e. the difference between each transaction's
   scheduled start time and the time it actually started.
  </para>

  <para>
   Here is example outputs:
<screen>
1345828501 5601 1542744 483552416 61 2573
1345828503 7884 1979812 565806736 60 1479
1345828505 7208 1979422 567277552 59 1391
1345828507 7685 1980268 569784714 60 1398
1345828509 7073 1979779 573489941 236 1411
</screen></para>

  <para>
   Notice that while the plain (unaggregated) log file contains index
   of the custom script files, the aggregated log does not. Therefore if
   you need per script data, you need to aggregate the data on your own.
  </para>

 </refsect2>

 <refsect2>
  <title>Per-Statement Latencies</title>

  <para>
   With the <option>-r</> option, <application>pgbench</> collects
   the elapsed transaction time of each statement executed by every
   client.  It then reports an average of those values, referred to
   as the latency for each statement, after the benchmark has finished.
  </para>

  <para>
   For the default script, the output will look similar to this:
<screen>
starting vacuum...end.
transaction type: TPC-B (sort of)
scaling factor: 1
query mode: simple
number of clients: 10
number of threads: 1
number of transactions per client: 1000
number of transactions actually processed: 10000/10000
tps = 618.764555 (including connections establishing)
tps = 622.977698 (excluding connections establishing)
statement latencies in milliseconds:
        0.004386        \set nbranches 1 * :scale
        0.001343        \set ntellers 10 * :scale
        0.001212        \set naccounts 100000 * :scale
        0.001310        \setrandom aid 1 :naccounts
        0.001073        \setrandom bid 1 :nbranches
        0.001005        \setrandom tid 1 :ntellers
        0.001078        \setrandom delta -5000 5000
        0.326152        BEGIN;
        0.603376        UPDATE pgbench_accounts SET abalance = abalance + :delta WHERE aid = :aid;
        0.454643        SELECT abalance FROM pgbench_accounts WHERE aid = :aid;
        5.528491        UPDATE pgbench_tellers SET tbalance = tbalance + :delta WHERE tid = :tid;
        7.335435        UPDATE pgbench_branches SET bbalance = bbalance + :delta WHERE bid = :bid;
        0.371851        INSERT INTO pgbench_history (tid, bid, aid, delta, mtime) VALUES (:tid, :bid, :aid, :delta, CURRENT_TIMESTAMP);
        1.212976        END;
</screen>
  </para>

  <para>
   If multiple script files are specified, the averages are reported
   separately for each script file.
  </para>

  <para>
   Note that collecting the additional timing information needed for
   per-statement latency computation adds some overhead.  This will slow
   average execution speed and lower the computed TPS.  The amount
   of slowdown varies significantly depending on platform and hardware.
   Comparing average TPS values with and without latency reporting enabled
   is a good way to measure if the timing overhead is significant.
  </para>
 </refsect2>

 <refsect2>
  <title>Good Practices</title>

  <para>
   It is very easy to use <application>pgbench</> to produce completely
   meaningless numbers.  Here are some guidelines to help you get useful
   results.
  </para>

  <para>
   In the first place, <emphasis>never</> believe any test that runs
   for only a few seconds.  Use the <option>-t</> or <option>-T</> option
   to make the run last at least a few minutes, so as to average out noise.
   In some cases you could need hours to get numbers that are reproducible.
   It's a good idea to try the test run a few times, to find out if your
   numbers are reproducible or not.
  </para>

  <para>
   For the default TPC-B-like test scenario, the initialization scale factor
   (<option>-s</>) should be at least as large as the largest number of
   clients you intend to test (<option>-c</>); else you'll mostly be
   measuring update contention.  There are only <option>-s</> rows in
   the <structname>pgbench_branches</> table, and every transaction wants to
   update one of them, so <option>-c</> values in excess of <option>-s</>
   will undoubtedly result in lots of transactions blocked waiting for
   other transactions.
  </para>

  <para>
   The default test scenario is also quite sensitive to how long it's been
   since the tables were initialized: accumulation of dead rows and dead space
   in the tables changes the results.  To understand the results you must keep
   track of the total number of updates and when vacuuming happens.  If
   autovacuum is enabled it can result in unpredictable changes in measured
   performance.
  </para>

  <para>
   A limitation of <application>pgbench</> is that it can itself become
   the bottleneck when trying to test a large number of client sessions.
   This can be alleviated by running <application>pgbench</> on a different
   machine from the database server, although low network latency will be
   essential.  It might even be useful to run several <application>pgbench</>
   instances concurrently, on several client machines, against the same
   database server.
  </para>
 </refsect2>
 </refsect1>
</refentry>
