Summary
-------

These directories take the Query structure returned by the parser, and
generate a plan used by the executor.  The /plan directory generates the
actual output plan, the /path code generates all possible ways to join the
tables, and /prep handles special cases like inheritance.  /util is utility
stuff.  /geqo is the separate "genetic optimization" planner --- it does
a semi-random search through the join tree space, rather than exhaustively
considering all possible join trees.  (But each join considered by geqo
is given to /path to create paths for, so we consider all possible
implementation paths for each specific join even in GEQO mode.)


Join Tree Construction
----------------------

The optimizer generates optimal query plans by doing a more-or-less
exhaustive search through the ways of executing the query.  During
the planning/optimizing process, we build "Path" trees representing
the different ways of doing a query.  We select the cheapest Path
that generates the desired relation and turn it into a Plan to pass
to the executor.  (There is pretty much a one-to-one correspondence
between the Path and Plan trees, but Path nodes omit info that won't
be needed during planning, and include info needed for planning that
won't be needed by the executor.)

The best Path tree is found by a recursive process:

1) Take each base relation in the query, and make a RelOptInfo structure
for it.  Find each potentially useful way of accessing the relation,
including sequential and index scans, and make a Path representing that
way.  All the Paths made for a given relation are placed in its
RelOptInfo.pathlist.  (Actually, we discard Paths that are obviously
inferior alternatives before they ever get into the pathlist --- what
ends up in the pathlist is the cheapest way of generating each potentially
useful sort ordering of the relation.)  Also create RelOptInfo.joininfo
nodes that list all the joins that involve this relation.  For example,
the WHERE clause "tab1.col1 = tab2.col1" generates a JoinInfo for tab1
listing tab2 as an unjoined relation, and also one for tab2 showing tab1
as an unjoined relation.

If we have only a single base relation in the query, we are done here.
Otherwise we have to figure out how to join the base relations into a
single join relation.

2) Consider joining each RelOptInfo to each other RelOptInfo specified in
its RelOptInfo.joininfo, and generate a Path for each possible join method.
(If we have a RelOptInfo with no join clauses, we have no choice but to
generate a clauseless Cartesian-product join; so we consider joining that
rel to each other available rel.  But in the presence of join clauses we
will only consider joins that use available join clauses.)

At this stage each input RelOptInfo is a single relation, so we are joining
every relation to the other relations as joined in the WHERE clause.  We
generate a new "join" RelOptInfo for each possible combination of two
"base" RelOptInfos, and put all the plausible paths for that combination
into the join RelOptInfo's pathlist.  (As before, we keep only the cheapest
alternative that generates any one sort ordering of the result.)

Joins always occur using two RelOptInfos.  One is outer, the other inner.
Outers drive lookups of values in the inner.  In a nested loop, lookups of
values in the inner occur by scanning the inner path once per outer tuple
to find each matching inner row.  In a mergejoin, inner and outer rows are
ordered, and are accessed in order, so only one scan is required to perform
the entire join: both inner and outer paths are scanned in-sync.  (There's
not a lot of difference between inner and outer in a mergejoin...)  In a
hashjoin, the inner is scanned first and all its rows are entered in a
hashtable, then the outer is scanned and for each row we lookup the join
key in the hashtable.

A Path for a join relation is actually a tree structure, with the top
Path node representing the join method.  It has left and right subpaths
that represent the scan methods used for the two input relations.

3) If we only had two base relations, we are done: we just pick the
cheapest path for the join RelOptInfo.  If we had more than two, we now
need to consider ways of joining join RelOptInfos to each other to make
join RelOptInfos that represent more than two base relations.

The join tree is constructed using a "dynamic programming" algorithm:
in the first pass (already described) we consider ways to create join rels
representing exactly two base relations.  The second pass considers ways
to make join rels that represent exactly three base relations; the next pass,
four relations, etc.  The last pass considers how to make the final join
relation that includes all base rels --- obviously there can be only one
join rel at this top level, whereas there can be more than one join rel
at lower levels.  At each level we use joins that follow available join
clauses, if possible, just as described for the first level.

For example:

    SELECT  *
    FROM    tab1, tab2, tab3, tab4
    WHERE   tab1.col = tab2.col AND
        tab2.col = tab3.col AND
        tab3.col = tab4.col

    Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4 are joined as:
    {1 2},{2 3},{3 4}
    {1 2 3},{2 3 4}
    {1 2 3 4}
    (other possibilities will be excluded for lack of join clauses)

    SELECT  *
    FROM    tab1, tab2, tab3, tab4
    WHERE   tab1.col = tab2.col AND
        tab1.col = tab3.col AND
        tab1.col = tab4.col

    Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4 are joined as:
    {1 2},{1 3},{1 4}
    {1 2 3},{1 3 4},{1 2 4}
    {1 2 3 4}

We consider left-handed plans (the outer rel of an upper join is a joinrel,
but the inner is always a base rel); right-handed plans (outer rel is always
a base rel); and bushy plans (both inner and outer can be joins themselves).
For example, when building {1 2 3 4} we consider joining {1 2 3} to {4}
(left-handed), {4} to {1 2 3} (right-handed), and {1 2} to {3 4} (bushy),
among other choices.  Although the jointree scanning code produces these
potential join combinations one at a time, all the ways to produce the
same set of joined base rels will share the same RelOptInfo, so the paths
produced from different join combinations that produce equivalent joinrels
will compete in add_path.

Once we have built the final join rel, we use either the cheapest path
for it or the cheapest path with the desired ordering (if that's cheaper
than applying a sort to the cheapest other path).


Optimizer Functions
-------------------

The primary entry point is planner().

planner()
 set up for recursive handling of subqueries
 do final cleanup after planning.
-subquery_planner()
 simplify constant expressions
 canonicalize qual
     Attempt to reduce WHERE clause to either CNF or DNF canonical form.
     CNF (top-level-AND) is preferred, since the optimizer can then use
     any of the AND subclauses to filter tuples; but quals that are in
     or close to DNF form will suffer exponential expansion if we try to
     force them to CNF.  In pathological cases either transform may expand
     the qual unreasonably; so we may have to leave it un-normalized,
     thereby reducing the accuracy of selectivity estimates.
 process sublinks
 convert Vars of outer query levels into Params
--union_planner()
  handle unions and inheritance by mutual recursion with prepunion.c routines
  preprocess target list
  handle GROUP BY, HAVING, aggregates, ORDER BY, DISTINCT
--query_planner()
   pull out constants from target list
   get a target list that only contains column names, no expressions
   if none, then return
---subplanner()
    make list of relations in target
    make list of relations in where clause
    split up the qual into restrictions (a=1) and joins (b=c)
    find relation clauses can do merge sort and hash joins
----make_one_rel()
     set_base_rel_pathlist()
      find scan and all index paths for each relation
      find selectivity of columns used in joins
-----make_one_rel_by_joins()
      jump to geqo if needed
      else call make_rels_by_joins() for each level of join tree needed
      make_rels_by_joins():
        For each joinrel of the prior level, do make_rels_by_clause_joins()
        if it has join clauses, or make_rels_by_clauseless_joins() if not.
        Also generate "bushy plan" joins between joinrels of lower levels.
      Back at make_one_rel_by_joins(), apply set_cheapest() to extract the
      cheapest path for each newly constructed joinrel.
      Loop back if this wasn't the top join level.
   do group(GROUP)
   do aggregate
   put back constants
   re-flatten target list
 make unique(DISTINCT)
 make sort(ORDER BY)


Optimizer Data Structures
-------------------------

RelOptInfo      - a relation or joined relations

 RestrictInfo   - restriction clauses, like "x = 3"
 JoinInfo       - join clauses, including the relids needed for the join

 Path           - every way to generate a RelOptInfo(sequential,index,joins)
  SeqScan       - a plain Path node with nodeTag = T_SeqScan
  IndexPath     - index scans
  NestPath      - nested-loop joins
  MergePath     - merge joins
  HashPath      - hash joins

 PathKeys       - a data structure representing the ordering of a path

The optimizer spends a good deal of its time worrying about the ordering
of the tuples returned by a path.  The reason this is useful is that by
knowing the sort ordering of a path, we may be able to use that path as
the left or right input of a mergejoin and avoid an explicit sort step.
Nestloops and hash joins don't really care what the order of their inputs
is, but mergejoin needs suitably ordered inputs.  Therefore, all paths
generated during the optimization process are marked with their sort order
(to the extent that it is known) for possible use by a higher-level merge.

It is also possible to avoid an explicit sort step to implement a user's
ORDER BY clause if the final path has the right ordering already, so the
sort ordering is of interest even at the top level.  subplanner() will
look for the cheapest path with a sort order matching the desired order,
and will compare its cost to the cost of using the cheapest-overall path
and doing an explicit sort.

When we are generating paths for a particular RelOptInfo, we discard a path
if it is more expensive than another known path that has the same or better
sort order.  We will never discard a path that is the only known way to
achieve a given sort order (without an explicit sort, that is).  In this
way, the next level up will have the maximum freedom to build mergejoins
without sorting, since it can pick from any of the paths retained for its
inputs.

See path/pathkeys.c for an explanation of the PathKeys data structure that
represents what is known about the sort order of a particular Path.
