<Chapter>
<TITLE>The Query Language</TITLE>

<Para>
<Note>
<Para>
This chapter must go into depth on each area of the query language. Currently a copy of the tutorial.
- thomas 1998-01-12
</Para>
</Note>
</Para>

<Para>
     The  <ProductName>Postgres</ProductName>  query language is a variant of
 <Acronym>SQL3</Acronym>. It
     has many extensions such as an extensible type  system,
     inheritance,  functions and production rules. Those are
     features carried over from the original <ProductName>Postgres</ProductName>  query
     language,  <ProductName>PostQuel</ProductName>.  This section provides an overview
     of how to use <ProductName>Postgres</ProductName> <Acronym>SQL</Acronym>  to  perform  simple  operations.
     This manual is only intended to give you an idea of our
     flavor of <Acronym>SQL</Acronym> and is in no way a complete  tutorial  on
     <Acronym>SQL</Acronym>.  Numerous  books  have  been  written  on <Acronym>SQL</Acronym>. For
     instance, consult <Ulink url="refs.html#MELT93">[MELT93]</ULink> or 
     <Ulink url="refs.html#DATE93">[DATE93]</ULink>. You should also
     be  aware  that  some features are not part of the <Acronym>ANSI</Acronym>
     standard.
</Para>

<Sect1>
<Title>Concepts</Title>

<Para>
     The fundamental notion in <ProductName>Postgres</ProductName> is that of a  class,
     which  is a named collection of object instances.  Each
     instance has the same collection of  named  attributes,
     and each attribute is of a specific type.  Furthermore,
     each instance has a permanent <FirstTerm>object  identifier</FirstTerm> (<Acronym>OID</Acronym>)
     that  is  unique  throughout the installation.  Because
     <Acronym>SQL</Acronym> syntax refers to tables,  we  will use  the  terms
     <FirstTerm>table</FirstTerm> and <FirstTerm>class</FirstTerm> interchangeably.
  Likewise, an <Acronym>SQL</Acronym> <FirstTerm>row</FirstTerm> is an
     <FirstTerm>instance</FirstTerm> and <Acronym>SQL</Acronym> <FirstTerm>columns</FirstTerm>
 are <FirstTerm>attributes</FirstTerm>.
     As  previously  discussed,  classes  are  grouped  into
     databases,  and  a collection of databases managed by a
     single <FileName>postmaster</FileName> process constitutes  an  installation
     or site.
</Para>

<Sect1>
<Title>Creating a New Class</Title>

<Para>
     You  can  create  a  new  class by specifying the class
     name, along with all attribute names and their types:

<ProgramListing>
CREATE TABLE weather (
    city            varchar(80),
    temp_lo         int,           -- low temperature
    temp_hi         int,           -- high temperature
    prcp            real,          -- precipitation
    date            date
);
</ProgramListing>

<Para>
     Note that keywords are case-insensitive and identifiers
     are usually case-insensitive.
<Acronym>Postgres</Acronym> allows <Acronym>SQL92</Acronym> <FirstTerm>delimited identifiers</FirstTerm>
(identifiers surrounded by double-quotes) to include mixed-case and spaces, tabs, etc.

<Para>
  <ProductName>Postgres</ProductName>  <Acronym>SQL</Acronym> supports the usual
     <Acronym>SQL</Acronym> types <Type>int</Type>,
 <Type>float</Type>,  <Type>real</Type>,  <Type>smallint</Type>,  <Type>char(N)</Type>,  
     <Type>varchar(N)</Type>,  <Type>date</Type>, <Type>time</Type>,
and <Type>timestamp</Type>, as well as other types of general utility and
a rich set of geometric types.  As we will 
     see later, <ProductName>Postgres</ProductName> can be customized  with  an  
     arbitrary  number  of
     user-defined  data types.  Consequently, type names are
     not syntactical keywords, except where required to support special cases in the <Acronym>SQL92</Acronym> standard.
     So far, the <ProductName>Postgres</ProductName> create command looks exactly  like
     the  command  used  to  create a table in a traditional
     relational system.  However, we will presently see that
     classes  have  properties  that  are  extensions of the
     relational model.
</Para>

<Sect1>
<Title>Populating a Class with Instances</Title>

<Para>
     The <Command>insert</Command> statement is used to populate a  class  with
     instances:

<ProgramListing>
INSERT INTO weather
    VALUES ('San Francisco', 46, 50, 0.25, '11/27/1994')
</ProgramListing>

<Para>
     You can also use the <Command>copy</Command> command to perform load large
     amounts of data from flat (<Acronym>ASCII</Acronym>) files.
This is usually faster because the data is read (or written) as a single atomic
transaction directly to or from the target table. An example would be:

<ProgramListing>
COPY INTO weather FROM '/home/user/weather.txt'
    USING DELIMITERS '|';
</ProgramListing>

where the path name for the source file must be available to the backend server
machine, not just the client.

<Sect1>
<Title>Querying a Class</Title>

<Para>
     The weather class can be queried with normal relational
     selection  and projection queries.  A <Acronym>SQL</Acronym> <Command>select</Command> 
     statement is used to do this.  The statement is divided into
     a target list (the part that lists the attributes to be
     returned) and a qualification (the part that  specifies
     any  restrictions).   For  example, to retrieve all the
     rows of weather, type:
<ProgramListing>
SELECT * FROM WEATHER;
</ProgramListing>

     and the output should be:
<ProgramListing>
+--------------+---------+---------+------+------------+
|city          | temp_lo | temp_hi | prcp | date       |
+--------------+---------+---------+------+------------+
|San Francisco | 46      | 50      | 0.25 | 11-27-1994 |
+--------------+---------+---------+------+------------+
|San Francisco | 43      | 57      | 0    | 11-29-1994 |
+--------------+---------+---------+------+------------+
|Hayward       | 37      | 54      |      | 11-29-1994 |
+--------------+---------+---------+------+------------+
</ProgramListing>
     You may specify any arbitrary expressions in the  target list. For example, you can do:
<ProgramListing>
SELECT city, (temp_hi+temp_lo)/2 AS temp_avg, date FROM weather;
</ProgramListing>

<Para>
     Arbitrary  Boolean  operators
 (<Command>and</Command>,  <Command>or</Command> and <Command>not</Command>) are
     allowed in the qualification of any query.   For  example,

<ProgramListing>
SELECT * FROM weather
    WHERE city = 'San Francisco'
    AND prcp > 0.0;

+--------------+---------+---------+------+------------+
|city          | temp_lo | temp_hi | prcp | date       |
+--------------+---------+---------+------+------------+
|San Francisco | 46      | 50      | 0.25 | 11-27-1994 |
+--------------+---------+---------+------+------------+
</ProgramListing>
</Para>

<Para>
     As  a final note, you can specify that the results of a
     select can be returned in a <FirstTerm>sorted order</FirstTerm>
 or with <FirstTerm>duplicate instances</FirstTerm> removed.

<ProgramListing>
SELECT DISTINCT city
    FROM weather
    ORDER BY city;
</ProgramListing>
</Para>

<Sect1>
<Title>Redirecting SELECT Queries</Title>

<Para>
     Any select query can be redirected to a new class
<ProgramListing>
SELECT * INTO TABLE temp FROM weather;
</ProgramListing>

<Para>
     This forms an implicit <Command>create</Command> command, creating a new
     class temp with the attribute names and types specified
     in  the target list of the <Command>select into</Command> command.  We can
     then, of course, perform any operations on the  resulting 
     class that we can perform on other classes.
</Para>

<Sect1>
<Title>Joins Between Classes</Title>

<Para>
     Thus far, our queries have only accessed one class at a
     time.  Queries can access multiple classes at once,  or
     access  the  same  class  in  such  a way that multiple
     instances of the class are being processed at the  same
     time.   A query that accesses multiple instances of the
     same or different classes at one time is called a  join
     query.
     As an example, say we wish to find all the records that
     are in the  temperature  range  of  other  records.  In
     effect,  we  need  to  compare  the temp_lo and temp_hi
     attributes of each EMP  instance  to  the  temp_lo  and
     temp_hi  attributes of all other EMP instances.
<Note>
<Para>
This  is only a conceptual model.  The actual join may
   be performed in a more efficient manner, but this is invisible to the user.
</Para>
</Note>

 We can do this with the following query:

<ProgramListing>
SELECT W1.city, W1.temp_lo, W1.temp_hi,
    W2.city, W2.temp_lo, W2.temp_hi
    FROM weather W1, weather W2
    WHERE W1.temp_lo < W2.temp_lo
    AND W1.temp_hi > W2.temp_hi;

+--------------+---------+---------+---------------+---------+---------+
|city          | temp_lo | temp_hi | city          | temp_lo | temp_hi |
+--------------+---------+---------+---------------+---------+---------+
|San Francisco | 43      | 57      | San Francisco | 46      | 50      |
+--------------+---------+---------+---------------+---------+---------+
|San Francisco | 37      | 54      | San Francisco | 46      | 50      |
+--------------+---------+---------+---------------+---------+---------+
</ProgramListing>     

<Note>
<Para>
The semantics of such a join are 
   that the qualification
   is a truth expression defined for the Cartesian  product  of
   the  classes indicated in the query.  For those instances in
   the Cartesian product for which the qualification  is  true,
   <ProductName>Postgres</ProductName>  computes  and  returns the values specified in the
   target list.  <ProductName>Postgres</ProductName> <Acronym>SQL</Acronym> does not assign  any  meaning  to
   duplicate values in such expressions.  This means that <ProductName>Postgres</ProductName> 
   sometimes recomputes the same target list several times;
   this frequently happens when Boolean expressions are connected 
   with an "or".  To remove such duplicates, you must  use
   the <Command>select distinct</Command> statement.
</Para>
</Note>

<Para>
     In this case, both W1 and  W2  are  surrogates for  an
     instance  of the class weather, and both range over all
     instances of the class.  (In the  terminology  of  most
     database  systems,  W1 and W2 are known as <FirstTerm>range variables</FirstTerm>.)  
     A query can contain an  arbitrary  number  of
     class names and surrogates.
</Para>

<Sect1>
<Title>Updates</Title>

<Para>
     You can update existing instances using the update command. 
     Suppose you discover the temperature readings are
     all  off  by 2 degrees as of Nov 28, you may update the
     data as follow:

<ProgramListing>
UPDATE weather
    SET temp_hi = temp_hi - 2,  temp_lo = temp_lo - 2
    WHERE date > '11/28/1994';
</ProgramListing>
</Para>

<Sect1>
<Title>Deletions</Title>

<Para>
     Deletions are performed using the <Command>delete</Command> command:
<ProgramListing>
DELETE FROM weather WHERE city = 'Hayward';
</ProgramListing>

     All weather recording belongs to Hayward is removed.
     One should be wary of queries of the form
<ProgramListing>
DELETE FROM classname;
</ProgramListing>

     Without a qualification, <Command>delete</Command> will simply
     remove  all  instances  of  the given class, leaving it
     empty.  The system will not request confirmation before
     doing this.
</Para>

<Sect1>
<Title>Using Aggregate Functions</Title>

<Para>
     Like  most  other  query  languages,  <ProductName>PostgreSQL</ProductName> supports
     aggregate functions.
The current  implementation  of  <ProductName>Postgres</ProductName> aggregate functions have some limitations.
     Specifically, while there  are  aggregates  to  compute
     such  functions as the <Function>count</Function>, <Function>sum</Function>,
 <Function>avg</Function> (average), <Function>max</Function> (maximum) and
     <Function>min</Function> (minimum) over a set of instances,  aggregates  can  only
     appear  in  the  target  list of a query and not directly in the
     qualification (the <FirstTerm>where</FirstTerm> clause). As an example,

<ProgramListing>
SELECT max(temp_lo) FROM weather;
</ProgramListing>

is allowed, while

<ProgramListing>
SELECT city FROM weather WHERE temp_lo = max(temp_lo);
</ProgramListing>

is not. However, as is often the case the query can be restated to accomplish
the intended result; here by using a <FirstTerm>subselect</FirstTerm>:
<ProgramListing>
SELECT city FROM weather WHERE temp_lo = (SELECT max(temp_lo) FROM weather);
</ProgramListing>
</Para>

<Para>
     Aggregates may also have <FirstTerm>group by</FirstTerm> clauses:
<ProgramListing>
SELECT city, max(temp_lo)
    FROM weather
    GROUP BY city;
</ProgramListing>
</Para>

</Chapter>
